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Discovery of conservation of momentum
You can explore this history-oriented lesson by Prof. Michael Fowler.
Momentum, Work and Energy Michael Fowler, U. Va. Physics
In 530 A.D., working in Alexandria, Byzantine philosopher John Philoponus developed a concept of momentum in his commentary to Aristotle’s Physics. Aristotle had claimed that everything that is moving must be kept moving by something. For example, a thrown ball must be kept moving by motions of the air.
Most writers continued to accept Aristotle’s theory until the time of Galileo, but a few were skeptical.
Philoponus pointed out the absurdity in Aristotle’s claim that motion of an object is promoted by the same air that is resisting its passage.
He proposed instead that an impetus was imparted to the object in the act of throwing it.
Ibn Sina (Arabic ابن سینا) (known by his Latinized name, Avicenna) read Philoponus and published his own theory of motion in The Book of Healing in 1020. He agreed that an impetus is imparted to a projectile by the thrower – but unlike Philoponus, who believed that it was temporary, and would decline even in a vacuum – Ibn Sina viewed it as a persistent. He understood that it required external forces – such as air resistance – to dissipate it.
These ideas were refined by European philosophers Peter Olivi and Jean Buridan. Buridan, who in about 1350 was made rector of the University of Paris, referred to impetus as proportional to the weight times the speed.
Like Ibn Sīnā, Buridan held that impetus (momentum) would not go away by itself; it could only dissipate if it encountered air resistance, friction, etc.
René Descartes believed that the total “quantity of motion” in the universe is conserved: quantity of motion = size and speed.
But Descartes didn’t distinguish between mass and volume, so this is not a specific equation.
Leibniz, in his “Discourse on Metaphysics”, gave an experimental argument against Descartes’ idea of “quantity of motion”.
Leibniz dropped blocks of different sizes, different distances.
He found that [size x speed] did not yield a conserved quantity.
The first correct statement of conservation of momentum:
English mathematician John Wallis, 1670
Mechanica sive De Motu, Tractatus Geometricus:
Isaac Newton’s Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, 1687
Defined “quantity of motion”, as “arising from the velocity and quantity of matter conjointly”
-> mass x velocity – which identifies it as momentum.
Adapted from “Momentum.” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 2 Oct. 2015.
External resources
The cause of motion from Aristotle to Philoponus
The cause of motion Descartes to Newton
Learning Standards
2016 Massachusetts Science and Technology/Engineering Curriculum Framework
HS-PS2-2. Use mathematical representations to show that the total momentum of a system of interacting objects is conserved when there is no net force on the system. Emphasis is on the qualitative meaning of the conservation of momentum and the quantitative understanding of the conservation of linear momentum in
interactions involving elastic and inelastic collisions between two objects in one
dimension.
HS-PS2-3. Apply scientific principles of motion and momentum to design, evaluate, and refine a device that minimizes the force on a macroscopic object during a collision. Clarification Statement: Both qualitative evaluations and algebraic manipulations may be used.
Common Core Math
- CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.7.EE.B.4 Use variables to represent quantities in a real-world or mathematical problem, and construct simple equations and inequalities to solve problems by reasoning about the quantities.
- CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.8.EE.C.7 Solve linear equations in one variable
- CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.HSA.SSE.B.3 Choose and produce an equivalent form of an expression to reveal and explain properties of the quantity represented by the expression. (including isolating a variable)
- CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.HSA.CED.A.4 Rearrange formulas to highlight a quantity of interest, using the same reasoning as in solving equations. For example, rearrange Ohm’s law V = IR to highlight resistance R.
- http://www.corestandards.org/Math/
Inertia and mass
Newton’s laws of motion describe the relationship between the motion of an object and the forces acting on it.
His laws of motion were first compiled in his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), published in 1687.
1st law of motion – Inertia
Every object continues in it’s state of rest, or of uniform velocity, as long as no net force acts on it.
2nd law of motion –
The acceleration experienced by an object will be proportional to the applied force, and inversely proportional to its mass.
3rd law of motion –
For every force there is an equal but opposite reaction force.
In this lesson we focus on his first law of motion.
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Every object continues in it’s state of rest, or of uniform velocity, as long as no net force acts on it.
If at rest, objects require force to start moving.
If moving, objects require a force to stop moving.
A quick summary.
An object at rest, stays at rest, unless accelerated by some external force.
Tow truck operators see this more often than you might imagine.
An object at rest, stays at rest, unless accelerated by some external force.
Elegantly illustrated by the leaves staying behind here (until gravity accelerates them!)
Animations showing Newton’s Law of Inertia
Two different definitions of mass
a measure of inertia (how much stuff resists being moved)
the quantity of matter (how much stuff is present in an object)
Don’t confuse mass with volume
Here are five cylinders of different metals:
they all are different volumes, yet all of equal mass.
Lead, copper, brass, zinc, and aluminum.
How is this possible?
Somehow, more matter can be crammed into the same volume with denser materials.
Less matter takes up the same volume in less-dense materials
Mass is not weight
Weight is how much a mass is pulled down by gravity.
This girl has the same mass on both worlds, yet her weight varies.
Mass is the quantity of matter in an object.
Weight is the force of gravity on an object.
One kilogram weighs (approximately) 10 Newtons
The gravity of Earth gives a downward acceleration to objects.
acceleration of gravity on earth = g
At Earth’s surface, measurements show that g = 9.8 m/s2
We often approximate this as g ≅ 10 m/s2
Because the object is being accelerated down, we feel this as “weight”.
Can we convert between mass and weight?
Strictly speaking – no, we can not.
Why not? Because the same mass will have different weights when placed on different planets.
Well, can we convert between mass and weight, assuming that the object is here on Earth?
Oh, that case is different. Yes, in that case we can convert between mass and weight.
Here’s a conversion that’s valid only on Earth.
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1 kg × g = 9.8 N (more exact)
1 kg × g ≅ 10N (approximation)
These approximate conversions are useful.
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1 kg of mass is about 10 Newtons of weight
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1/10 kg of mass is about 1 Newton of weight
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100 kg of mass is about a kN of weight
Learning standards
AAAS Benchmarks for Science Literacy, The Physical Setting
“Newton’s laws of motion are simple to state, and sometimes teachers mistake the ability of students to recite the three laws correctly as evidence that they understand them. The fact that it took such a long time, historically, to codify the laws of motion suggests that they are not self-evident truths, no matter how obvious they may seem to us once we understand them well. ”
Common Core ELA
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RST.9-10.4
Determine the meaning of symbols, key terms, and other domain-specific words and phrases as they are used in a specific scientific or technical context relevant to grades 9-10 texts and topics.
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RST.11-12.4
Determine the meaning of symbols, key terms, and other domain-specific words and phrases as they are used in a specific scientific or technical context relevant to grades 11-12 texts and topics.
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RST.11-12.9
Synthesize information from a range of sources (e.g., texts, experiments, simulations) into a coherent understanding of a process, phenomenon, or concept, resolving conflicting information when possible.
New York Physics: The Physical Setting Core Curriculum
Key Idea 5: Energy and matter interact through forces that result in changes in motion.
5.1 Explain and predict different patterns of motion of objects (e.g., linear and uniform circular motion, velocity and acceleration, momentum and inertia)
5.1i According to Newton’s First Law, the inertia of an object is directly proportional to its mass. An object remains at rest or moves with constant velocity, unless acted upon by an unbalanced force
Appendix D: AP Physics Enduring Understandings
Enduring Understanding 1C:
Objects and systems have properties of inertial mass and gravitational mass that are experimentally verified to be the same. Inertial mass is the property of an object or a system that determines how its motion changes when it interacts with other objects or systems.
Isolating variables
A literal equation is an equation where variables represent known values.
Variables may represent things like distance, time, velocity, interest, slope, etc.
The slope formula is a literal equation.
Y = MX + B
The distance that an object falls, in t seconds, is a literal equation.
So you’re working on a problem, and you identified the correct formula.
What do we when the variable that you need is not by itself?
In the above equation, how do we get t by itself?
By isolating the variable. In this tutorial, you’ll learn how to do this.
how to isolate a variable.
Learning Standards: Common Core Math
- Common Core Math
- CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.7.EE.B.4 Use variables to represent quantities in a real-world or mathematical problem, and construct simple equations and inequalities to solve problems by reasoning about the quantities.
- CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.8.EE.C.7 Solve linear equations in one variable
- CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.HSA.SSE.B.3 Choose and produce an equivalent form of an expression to reveal and explain properties of the quantity represented by the expression. (including isolating a variable)
- CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.HSA.CED.A.4 Rearrange formulas to highlight a quantity of interest, using the same reasoning as in solving equations. For example, rearrange Ohm’s law V = IR to highlight resistance R.
- http://www.corestandards.org/Math/
Origin of magnetism
Also see https://kaiserscience.wordpress.com/physics/electromagnetism/sources-of-magnetism/
and https://kaiserscience.wordpress.com/physics/electromagnetism/magnetism/
Where does magnetism come from?
I’ve heard that special relativity makes the concept of magnetic fields irrelevant, replacing them with relativistic effects between charges moving in different velocity frames. Is this true? If so, how does this work?
Luboš Motl, a Czech theoretical physicist, replies:
Special relativity makes the existence of magnetic fields an inevitable consequence of the existence of electric fields. In the inertial system B moving relatively to the inertial system A, purely electric fields from A will look like a combination of electric and magnetic fields in B. According to relativity, both frames are equally fit to describe the phenomena and obey the same laws.
So special relativity removes the independence of the concepts (independence of assumptions about the existence) of electricity and magnetism. If one of the two fields exists, the other field exists, too. They may be unified into an antisymmetric tensor, FμνFμν.
However, what special relativity doesn’t do is question the independence of values of the electric fields and magnetic fields. At each point of spacetime, there are 3 independent components of the electric field E⃗ E→ and three independent components of the magnetic field B⃗ B→: six independent components in total. That’s true for relativistic electrodynamics much like the “pre-relativistic electrodynamics” because it is really the same theory!
Magnets are different objects than electrically charged objects. It was true before relativity and it’s true with relativity, too.
It may be useful to notice that the situation of the electric and magnetic fields (and phenomena) is pretty much symmetrical. Special relativity doesn’t really urge us to consider magnetic fields to be “less fundamental”. Quite on the contrary, its Lorentz symmetry means that the electric and magnetic fields (and phenomena) are equally fundamental. That doesn’t mean that we can’t consider various formalisms and approximations that view magnetic fields – or all electromagnetic fields – as derived concepts, e.g. mere consequences of the motion of charged objects in spacetime. But such formalisms are not forced upon us by relativity.
***
Terry Bollinger , an American computer scientist who works at the MITRE Corporation, replies:
Although the relationship between special relativity and magnetic fields is often stated as making magnetic fields irrelevant, this is not quite the correct way to say it.
What actually disappears is the need for magnetic attractions and repulsions. That’s because with the proper choice of motion frames a magnetic force can always be explained as a type of electrostatic attraction or repulsion made possible by relativistic effects.
The part that too often is overlooked or misunderstood is that these changes in the interpretation of forces does not eliminate the magnetic fields themselves. One simple way to explain why this must be true is that if it was not, a compass would give different readings depending on which frame you observed it from. So to maintain self-consistency across frames, magnetic fields must remain in place, even when they no longer play a role in the main attractive or repulsive forces between bodies.
One of the best available descriptions of how special relativity transforms the role of magnetic fields can be found in the Feynman Lectures on Physics. In Volume II, Chapter 13, Section 13-6, The relativity of magnetic and electric fields, Feynman describes a nicely simplified example of a wire that has internal electrons moving at velocity v through the wire, and an external electron that also moves at v nearby and parallel to the wire.
Feynman points out that in classical electrodynamics, the electrons moving within the wire and the external electron both generate magnetic fields that cause them to attract. Thus from the view of human observers watching the wire, the forces that attract the external electron towards the wire are entirely magnetic.
However, since the external and internal electrons move in the same direction at the same velocity v, special relativity says that an observer could “ride along” and see both the external and internal electrons as being at rest.
Since charges must be in motion to generate magnetic fields, there can in this case be no magnetic fields associated with the external electron or the internal electrons.
But to keep reality self-consistent, the electron must nonetheless still be attracted towards the wire and move towards it! How is this possible?
This is where special relativity plays a neat parlor trick on us.
The first part of the trick is to realize that there is one other player in all of this:
The wire, which is now moving backwards at a velocity of -v relative to the motionless frame of the electrons.
The second part of the trick is to realize that the wire is positively charged, since it is missing all of those electrons that now look like they are sitting still.
That means that the moving wire creates an electric current composed of positive charges moving in the -v direction.
The third and niftiest part of the trick is where special relativity kicks in.
Recall than in special relativity, when objects move uniformly they undergo a contraction in length along the direction of motion called the Lorentz contraction.
I should emphasize that Lorentz contraction is not some kind of abstract or imaginary effect. It is just as real as the compression you get by squeezing something in a vice grip, even if it is gentler on the object itself.
Now think about that for a moment:
If the object is also charged at some average number of positive charges per centimeter, what happens if you squash the charged object so that it occupies less space along its long length?
Well, just what you think: The positive charges along its length will also be compressed, resulting in a higher density of positive charges per centimeter of wire.
The electrons are not moving from their own perspective, however, so their density within the wire will not be compressed. When it comes to cancelling out charge, this is a problem! The electrons within the wire can no longer fully cancel out the higher density of positive charges of the relativistically compressed wire, leaving the wire with a net positive charge.
The final step in the parlor trick is that since the external electron has a negative charge, it is now attracted electrostatically to the wire and its net positive charge.
So even though the magnetic fields generated by the electrons have disappeared, a new attraction has appeared to take its place!
Now you can go through all of the details of the math and figure out the magnitude of this new electrostatic attraction.
However, this is one of those cases where you can take a conceptual shortcut by realizing that since reality must remain self-consistent – no matter what frame you view if from – the magnitude of this new electrostatic attraction must equal the magnetic attraction as seen earlier from the frame of a motionless wire.
(If you do get different answers, you need to look over your work!)
But what about the other point I made earlier, the one about the magnetic field not disappearing? Didn’t the original magnetic field disappear as soon as one takes the frame view of the electrons?
Well, sure. But don’t forget: Even though the electrons are no longer moving, the positively charged wire is moving and will generate its own magnetic field. Furthermore, since the wire contains the same number of positive charges as electrons in the current, all moving in the opposite (-v) direction, the resulting magnetic field will look very much like the field originally generated by the electrons.
So, just as the method of attraction switches from pure magnetic to pure electrostatic as one moves from the wire frame to the moving electron frame, the cause of the magnetic field also switches from pure electron generated to pure positive-wire generated. Between these two extremes are other frames in which both attraction and the source of the magnetic field become linear mixes of the two extreme cases.
Feynman briefly mentions the magnetic field generated by the moving positive wire, but focuses his discussion mostly on the disappearance of the electron-generated magnetic fields. That’s a bit unfortunate, since it can leave a casual reader with the incorrect impression that the magnetic fieldas a whole disappears.
It does not, since that would violate self-consistency by making a compass (e.g., the magnetic dipole of that external electron) behave differently depending on the frame from which you observe it.
The preservation of the magnetic field as the set of particles generating it changes from frame to frame is in many ways just as remarkable as the change in the nature of the attractive or repulsive forces between objects, and is worth noting more conspicuously.
Finally, all of these examples show that the electromagnetic field really is a single field, one whose overt manifestations can change dramatically depending on the frame from which they are viewed. The effects of such fields, however, are not up for grabs. Those must remain invariant even as the apparent mechanisms change and morph from one form (or one set of particles) to another.
Does special relativity make magnetic fields irrelevant? Physics StackExchange
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Also see
The Feynman Lectures. 13–6 Magnetostatics. The relativity of magnetic and electric fields
==============================
Special Relativity in 14 Easy (Hyper)steps
14. Why there are magnetic fields
http://web.hep.uiuc.edu/home/g-gollin/relativity/p112_relativity_14.html
Math skills needed for physics
High School students are expected to know the content of the Massachusetts Mathematics Curriculum Framework, through grade 8. These are skills from the framework that students will need:
Construct and use tables and graphs to interpret data sets.
Solve simple algebraic expressions.
Perform basic statistical procedures to analyze the center and spread of data.
Measure with accuracy and precision (e.g., length, volume, mass, temperature, time)
Metric system: Convert within a unit (e.g., centimeters to meters).
Metric system: Use common prefixes such as milli-, centi-, and kilo-.
Use scientific notation, where appropriate.
Use ratio and proportion to solve problems.
Conversion from Metric-to-Imperial (English) and Imperial-to-Metric
Determine percent error from experimental and accepted values.
Use appropriate Metric units, e.g. mass (kg); length (m); time (s); force (N); speed (m/s), etc.
Use the Celsius and Kelvin temperature scales
8th grade math skills that students should have
8.NS.2 Use rational approximations of irrational numbers to compare the size of irrational numbers, locate them approximately on a number line diagram, and estimate the value of expressions (e.g., pi2).
8.EE Work with radicals and integer exponents.
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8.EE.1 Know and apply the properties of integer exponents to generate equivalent numerical expressions.
- Understanding exponents (8-F.1)
- Evaluate exponents (8-F.2)
- Solve equations with variable exponents (8-F.3)
- Exponents with negative bases (8-F.4)
- Exponents with decimal and fractional bases (8-F.5)
- Understanding negative exponents (8-F.6)
- Evaluate negative exponents (8-F.7)
- Multiplication with exponents (8-F.8)
- Division with exponents (8-F.9)
- Multiplication and division with exponents (8-F.10)
- Power rule (8-F.11)
- Evaluate expressions using properties of exponents (8-F.12)
- Identify equivalent expressions involving exponents (8-F.13)
- Multiply monomials (8-BB.6)
- Divide monomials (8-BB.7)
- Multiply and divide monomials (8-BB.8)
- Powers of monomials (8-BB.9)
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8.EE.3 Use numbers expressed in the form of a single digit times an integer power of 10 to estimate very large or very small quantities, and to express how many times as much one is than the other.
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8.EE.4 Perform operations with numbers expressed in scientific notation, including problems where both decimal and scientific notation are used. Use scientific notation and choose units of appropriate size for measurements of very large or very small quantities (e.g., use millimeters per year for seafloor spreading). Interpret scientific notation that has been generated by technology.
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8.EE Understand the connections between proportional relationships, lines, and linear equations.
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8.EE.5 Graph proportional relationships, interpreting the unit rate as the slope of the graph. Compare two different proportional relationships represented in different ways.
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8.EE Analyze and solve linear equations and pairs of simultaneous linear equations.
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8.EE.7 Solve linear equations in one variable.
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8.EE.7.a Give examples of linear equations in one variable with one solution, infinitely many solutions, or no solutions. Show which of these possibilities is the case by successively transforming the given equation into simpler forms, until an equivalent equation of the form x = a, a = a, or a = b results (where a and b are different numbers).
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8.F.3 Interpret the equation y = mx + b as defining a linear function, whose graph is a straight line; give examples of functions that are not linear.
8.F Use functions to model relationships between quantities.
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8.F.4 Construct a function to model a linear relationship between two quantities. Determine the rate of change and initial value of the function from a description of a relationship or from two (x, y) values, including reading these from a table or from a graph. Interpret the rate of change and initial value of a linear function in terms of the situation it models, and in terms of its graph or a table of values.
- Write equations for proportional relationships from tables (8-I.2)
- Find the constant of proportionality from a graph (8-I.4)
- Interpret graphs of proportional relationships (8-I.8)
- Write and solve equations for proportional relationships (8-I.9)
- Find the slope of a graph (8-Y.1)
- Find the slope from two points (8-Y.2)
- Find a missing coordinate using slope (8-Y.3)
- Write a linear equation from a graph (8-Y.8)
- Write a linear equation from two points (8-Y.10)
- Rate of change (8-Z.4)
- Constant rate of change (8-Z.5)
- Write a linear function from a table (8-Z.10)
- Write linear functions: word problems (8-Z.12)
8.F.5 Describe qualitatively the functional relationship between two quantities by analyzing a graph (e.g., where the function is increasing or decreasing, linear or nonlinear). Sketch a graph that exhibits the qualitative features of a function that has been described verbally.
8.G Understand and apply the Pythagorean Theorem.
8.G Solve real-world and mathematical problems involving volume of cylinders, cones, and spheres.
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8.G.9 Know the formulas for the volumes of cones, cylinders, and spheres and use them to solve real-world and mathematical problems.
8.SP.2 Know that straight lines are widely used to model relationships between two quantitative variables. For scatter plots that suggest a linear association, informally fit a straight line, and informally assess the model fit by judging the closeness of the data points to the line.
from https://www.ixl.com/standards/massachusetts/math/grade-8
Selected new skills students will learn in 9th grade physics.
Dimensional analysis
Determine the correct number of significant figures.
2016 Massachusetts Science and Technology/Engineering Curriculum Framework
Apply ratios, rates, percentages, and unit conversions in the context of complicated measurement problems involving quantities with derived or compound units (such as mg/mL, kg/m 3, acre-feet, etc.).
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Students need to develop an understanding of metric units and their relationships, as well as fluency in applying the metric system to real-world situations. Because some non-metric units of measure are common in particular contexts, students need to develop familiarity with multiple systems of measure, including metric and customary systems and their relationships.
National Science Teachers Association
The efficiency and effectiveness of the metric system has long been evident to scientists, engineers, and educators. Because the metric system is used in all industrial nations except the United States, it is the position of the National Science Teachers Association that the International System of Units (SI) and its language be incorporated as an integral part of the education of children at all levels of their schooling.
Math is different from physics
Mathematics does not need to bother itself with real-world observations. It exists independently of any and all real-world measurements. It exists in a mental space of axioms, operators and rules.
Physics depends on real-world observations. Any physics theory could be overturned by a real-world measurement.
None of maths can be overturned by a real-world measurement. None of geometry can be.
Physics starts from what could be described as a romantic or optimistic notion: that the universe can be usefully described in mathematical terms; and that humans have the mental ability to assemble, and even interpret, that mathematical description.
Maths need not concern itself with how the universe actually works. Perhaps there are no real numbers, one might think it is likely that there is only a countable number of possible measurements in this universe, and nothing can form a perfect triangle or point.
Maths, including geometry, is a perfect abstraction that need bear no relation to the universe as it is.
Physics, to have any meaning, must bear some sort of correspondence to the universe as it is.
Why-is-geometry-mathematics-and-not-physics? Physics StackExchange, by EnergyNumbers
Teaching coding
Teaching coding:3 Steps to Becoming a Coding Teacher, By Grant Smith
http://www.edutopia.org/blog/3-steps-to-becoming-a-coding-teacher-grant-smith
2. Prepare Yourself and Your Classroom
Notice how I included resources above for adults to learn coding. That means you! I recommend that you first review your selected curriculum and then move on to the more complicated stuff. I highly recommend the Intro to CS and Intro to Programming courses on Udacity. You should also prepare for your class by answering the following questions:
- What are your learning expectations for the students? (Check out these learning outcomes for the Khan Academy course as an example.)
- Are your students learning computational thinking, computer science, or computer programming? (There is a difference. Check out Harvard research on computational thinking.)
- What’s your classroom layout? (See my post for ideas.)
- Will your students work at their own pace or at your pace?
- Will students work through a curriculum, or will it be project based?
- How will students collaborate?
- How will students share their work with you, their peers, and the world?
- How will student accounts be managed? Will you create them? Do you need parent or administrator permission?
- Why should your students learn to code? (Students are more excited to learn when you are excited to teach. Check out the Top Ten Reasons to Code.)
- How will you assess your students? (This PDF details some research on assessing computational thinking.)
3. Get Support
Just because anyone can learn to code online doesn’t mean that’s the best way to do it. Code.org’s research found that “students who are learning with the support of their teacher in a classroom setting complete courses more than those learning on their own” (Teachers Matter). We all know that for teachers to be successful, we need support. So rally the troops!
- Find a champion for your coding crusade. The higher level the champion is, the easier it will be for you to gain access to resources and spread the word about your 21st-century class.
- Get the community involved. Host an Hour of Codecommunity event. Last year, the Avondale Elementary School District held an Hour of Code event where the students taught their parents how to program.
- Build your PLN. Follow people on your favorite social network and ask for help. Some great hashtags are#CSK8, #KidsCanCode, and #AllKidsCode.
- Present to your governing board. Show them how your curriculum aligns to CCSS and builds 21st-century skills.
Jump Into 21st-Century Learning!
If you’ve already had successful experiences coding in your class, share them in the comments section of this post or on your PLN. If not, you may be asking the following questions:
- Will you know the answer to every question that your students will have?
- Will you feel well rested, prepared, and in control at all times?
- Will every class run without a hitch?
Answers: 1) No. 2) You wish. 3) In your dreams!
Will it be worth it? You better believe it! Now go make it happen!
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15+ Ways of Teaching Every Student to Code
(Even Without a Computer)
Vicki Davis, http://www.edutopia.org/blog/15-ways-teaching-students-coding-vicki-davis
…While the Hour of Code is in December, Code.org hassuggested resources for educators, unplugged lessons (those not requiring computers), and tutorials to help you teach computer science to kids of all ages any time of the year….
- Scratch is a programming game that can be downloaded or used on the Web and is supported by MIT. They’ve got a powerful Hour of Code tutorial where students can program a holiday card in their web browser.
- Or, if you want options for other times of the year, use the one-hour “Speed Racer” activity to teach your students Scratch. Teachers can watch this tutorial video to learn how, visit ScratchED’s Hour of Code Ideas forum to ask questions, or search “Hour of Code” on the forum for lesson plans using everything from coordinate geometry to Latin. Scratch is considered acceptable for beginners. (Some educators use Snap, originally a version of Scratch but now written in Javascript that is supported by University of California at Berkeley. There are several alternatives to Scratch with a similar interface. Give this list to your IT department if there are technical reasons why you can’t run Scratch or Snap.)
- Lightbot has a version on just about any platform and even has an online one-hour version. This puzzle game has a free version which lasts an hour but sells full versions on iTunes and Google Play. It teaches planning, testing, debugging, procedures, and loops.
- Kodu is another programming tool that can be easily used on a PC or XBOX to create a simple game. There’s also a math curriculum. This is one method that Pat Yongpradit, Code.org’s Director of Education, used in his computer science classroom. (I’ve used it as well.)
- Gamestar Mechanic offers a free version that you might want to use for your hour, but if you fall in love with it, the educational package allows teachers to track student progress, among other features. The company supports educators, and there’s also an Edmodo community that shares lesson plans and ideas for the tool, along withvideos and a must-see teacher’s guide.
- GameMaker is an option if you want to make games that can be played in any web browser. The resources aren’t as comprehensive and the community isn’t vibrant, but this one has been around for a while and might be fun for a more tech-savvy teacher.
- My Robot Friend is a highly-rated app according toCommon Sense Media. It costs $3.99, but no in-app purchases are required to go to higher levels.
- SpaceChem is an interesting mix of chemistry, reading, and programming for age 12 and up. As students read the 10,000-word novelette, they have to solve puzzles by assembling molecules. SpaceChem created a helpful guide for educators. This tool is available for download on Steam and installation on Windows, Mac, and Ubuntu. (Download a free demo.)
- CodeCombat is a multiplayer game that teaches coding. It’s free to play at the basic level, and students don’t have to sign up. This has the advantage that teachers don’t have to know computer science to empower learning in this programming. It’s recommended for age 9 and up. See theteacher guide for the information and standards covered in this game.
- Minecraft.edu is an option that lets you install and use Minecraft in the classroom. While this does require some purchase and setup, Minecraft seems to be gaining in popularity among educators as an in-house, 3D world-programming environment that kids love. Minecraft.edu has a Google group and best practices wiki. (My son took a course at Youth Digital that taught him Java to mod Minecraft — while pricey, it was a great course.)
- Do you want a board game for older children? Code Monkey Island is designed for children age 9 and up. This is a great addition to your game corner.
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Tutorials Point
Tutorials Point originated from the idea that there exists a class of readers who respond better to online content and prefer to learn new skills at their own pace from the comforts of their drawing rooms. The journey commenced with a single tutorial on HTML in 2006 and elated by the response it generated, we worked our way to adding fresh tutorials to our repository which now proudly flaunts a wealth of tutorials and allied articles on topics ranging from programming languages to web designing to academics and much more.
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/index.htm
Programming Lego NXT robots
EV3Lessons.com by Seshan Brothers
Measuring data with smartphone apps
From Google: Science Journal transforms your device into a pocket-size science tool that encourages students to explore their world. As they conduct eye-opening experiments, they’ll record observations and make new, exciting discoveries.
Science Journal With Google: Intro and website
Science Journal by Google (Android app)
Science Journal by Google. iOS (Apple) app
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On Physics Central Tamela Maciel writes:
That smartphone you carry around in your pocket all day is a pretty versatile lab assistant. It is packed with internal sensors that measure everything from acceleration to sound volume to magnetic field strength. But I’ll wager most people don’t realize what their phones can actually do. Apps like SensorLog (iOS) or AndroSensor (Android) display and record raw data from the phone’s movement, any background noises, and even the number of satellites in the neighborhood. Watching this data stream across my screen, I’m reminded just how powerful a computer my phone really is. Wrapped into one, the smartphone is an accelerometer, compass, microphone, magnetometer, photon detector, and a gyroscope. Many phones can even measure things like temperature and air pressure.
http://physicsbuzz.physicscentral.com/2015/01/your-smartphone-can-do-physics.html
Apps
Physics Toolbox Sensor Suite (Google Android)
Physics Toolbox Sensor Suite (Apple iOS)
Useful for STEM education, academia, and industry, this app uses device sensor inputs to collect, record, and export data in comma separated value (csv) format through a shareable .csv file. Data can be plotted against elapsed time on a graph or displayed digitally. Users can export the data for further analysis in a spreadsheet or plotting tool. See http://www.vieyrasoftware.net for a variety of usage ideas
SENSORS
(1) G-Force Meter – ratio of Fn/Fg (x, y, z and/or total)
(2) Linear Accelerometer – acceleration (x, y, and/or z)
(3) Gyroscope – radial velocity (x, y, and/or z)
(4) Barometer – atmospheric pressure
(5) Roller Coaster – G-Force Meter, Linear Accelerometer, Gyroscope, and Barometer
(6) Hygrometer – relative humidity
(7) Thermometer – temperature
(8) Proximeter – periodic motion and timer (timer and pendulum modes)
(9) Ruler – distance between two points
(10) Magnetometer – magnetic field intensity (x, y, z and/or total)
(11) Compass – magnetic field direction and bubble level
(12) GPS – latitude, longitude, altitude, speed, direction, number of satellites
(13) Inclinometer – azimuth, roll, pitch
(14) Light Meter – light intensity
(15) Sound Meter – sound intensity
(16) Tone Detector – frequency and musical tone
(17) Oscilloscope – wave shape and relative amplitude
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PDF Labs to use with smartphone apps
https://mobilescience.wikispaces.com/Labs
| EnglishIntroduction | EspañolIntroducción |
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https://mobilescience.wikispaces.com/Labs
Simple Harmonic Motion, and measuring Period
Smartphone Physics in the Park
Here’s a simple physics experiment you can do at your local park.
By swinging on a swing and collecting a bit of data, you can measure the length of the swing – without ever pulling out a ruler.
1. To get started, download the free SPARKvue app (or another data logger app like SensorLog or AndroSensor). Open it up and have a play.
By clicking on the measurement you want to track and then clicking on ‘Show’, you will see an graph window open with a green play button in the corner.
Click the play button and the phone will start tracking acceleration over time.
To stop recording, click the play button again.
Save your data using the share icon above the graph.
2. Find a swing.
3. Fix your phone to the swing chain with tape – or hold it really still against your chest in portrait orientation with the screen facing your body.
Since I was a bit lazy, I opted for the latter option but this makes the final data a bit messier with all the inevitable extra movement.
You want portrait orientation in order to measure the acceleration along the direction of the swing chains.
This will tell us how the centripetal acceleration from the tension in the chains changes as you swing.
4. Start swinging and recording the Y-axis acceleration, without moving your legs or twisting your body. Collect data for about 20 seconds.
5. Stop recording and have a look at your lovely sinusoidal graph.
You could try to do the next step directly from this graph.
I wanted a bigger plot, so I saved the raw data and copied it into Excel.
Here are the first 20 seconds of my swing.
Plotting the centripetal (Y-axis) acceleration against time.
You can immediately see the sine wave pattern of the swing,
and the fact that the height of the peaks is decreasing over time.
This is because all pendulums have a bit of friction and gradually come to a halt.
Keep in mind that this plot shows the change in acceleration, not velocity or position.
 |
| Acceleration of a swing, as measured along the chain of a swing. Data collected with SPARKvue and graphed in Excel. Credit: author, Tamela Maciel |
6. Measure the period of the swing from the graph.
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| Direction of total velocity and acceleration for a simple pendulum. Credit: Ruryk via Wikimedia Commons |
To make sense of the peaks and troughs:
think about the point mid-swing when your speed is highest.
This is when you’re closest to the ground, zooming through the swing’s resting point.
It is at this point that the force or tension along the swing chain is highest, corresponding to a maximum peak on the graph.
The minimum peaks correspond to when you are at the highest point in the swing,
and you briefly come to a stop before zooming back down the other way.
Check out The Physics Classroom site for some handy diagrams of pendulum acceleration parallel and perpendicular to the string.
Once we know what the peaks represent,
we can see that the time between two peaks is half a cycle (period).
Therefore the time between every other peak is one period.
For slightly more accuracy, I counted out the time between 5 periods (shown on the graph)
and then divided by five to get an average period of 2.65 seconds per swing.
A simple pendulum has a period that depends only on its length, l,
and the constant acceleration due to gravity, g:
I measured T = 2.65 s and know that g = 9.8 m/s/s,
so I can solve for l, the length of the swing.
I get l = 1.74 meters or 5.7 feet.
This is a reasonable value, based on my local swing set, but of course I could always double check with a ruler.
Now a few caveats: my swing and my body are not a simple pendulum, which assumes a point mass on the end of a weightless string.
I have legs and arms that stick out away from my center of mass, and the chains of the swing definitely do have mass.
So this simple period equation is not quite correct for the swing (instead I should think about the physics of the physical pendulum).
But as a first approximation, the period equation gives a pretty reasonable answer.
http://physicsbuzz.physicscentral.com/2015/01/your-smartphone-can-do-physics.html
By the way , here are comments on the above graph:
Claim: “Your graph is wrong. You write at the peaks, where the acceleration is highest, that the velocity is highest and the mid-swing-point. That is wrong. There is also a turning point with lowest velocity. The highest velocity and the mid-swing-point is where the acceleration is 0.”
Response #1
Remember, the phone is only recording the y-component of the total acceleration. At the end points the where the acceleration, a, is at maximum, but is at right angles to the chains so the y-component is zero.
This coincides with the velocity reaching zero as well.
At the mid-point where the velocity reaches maximum, the x-component of the acceleration is zero and the y-component reaches its maximum.
There is no point where the total acceleration reaches zero, only the x-component.
Response #2
My phone was measuring only the y-component of the acceleration, which from the way I held it, was only along the direction of the chains.
The maximum acceleration or force along the chains happens at the mid-point of the swing.
The minimum acceleration along the chains happens at the turning point.
So the graph is correct for the y-component acceleration.
But it would be interesting to repeat the experiment measuring the acceleration in the x-component, where the graph would look somewhat different.
Other experiments to explore
Morelessons from Vieyra software
http://www.vieyrasoftware.net/browse-lessons
Smartphones in science teaching
Mobile sensor apps for learning physics: A Google Plus community
https://plus.google.com/communities/117493961647466126964
Article: Turn Your Smartphone into a Science Laboratory
http://static.nsta.org/files/tst1509_32.pdf
Using smartphone apps to take physics day to the next level
Placing the smartphone onto a record, playing on a turntable
To study angular motion
Smartphone app contest
http://physicsday.usu.edu/Information/ContestInfo/smartphone.asp
Many more ideas https://mobilescience.wikispaces.com/Ideas
Physics Toolbox Apps by Vieyra Software http://www.vieyrasoftware.net/browse-lessons
Belmont University Summer Science Camp
Physics with Phones, Dr. Scott Hawley http://hedges.belmont.edu/~shawley/PhonePhysics.pdf
References
Familiarizing Students with the Basics of a Smartphone’s Internal Sensors
Colleen Lanz Countryman, Phys. Teach. 52, 557 (2014)
http://dx.doi.org/10.1119/1.4902204
http://scitation.aip.org/content/aapt/journal/tpt/52/9/10.1119/1.4902204
Full text of article, in PDF format
http://scitation.aip.org/content/aapt/journal/tpt/52/3/10.1119/1.4865529
http://scitation.aip.org/content/aapt/journal/tpt/52/5/10.1119/1.4872422
http://iopscience.iop.org/0143-0807/35/4/045013/article
http://scitation.aip.org/content/aapt/journal/tpt/52/8/10.1119/1.4897595
Music of the day
Music to study science by
The Boston Symphony Orchestra as caught in its incomparable native habitat, Symphony Hall.(c) Stu Rosner
Education in music and poetry is most important … because rhythm and harmony permeate the inner part of the soul more than anything else, affecting it most strongly and bringing it grace, so that is someone is properly educated in music and poetry, it makes him graceful. But if not, then the opposite. And because anyone who has been properly educated in music and poetry will sense it acutely when something has been omitted from a thing and when it hasn’t been finely crafted or finely made by nature.”
– Plato, The Republic III 401d-e.
Steven Steigman
Ludwig van Beethoven, Symphony No. 9 in D Minor 4th Movement, “Ode To Joy”, English version, “Joyful, Joyful, We Adore Thee”, at Royal Albert Hall, London, England
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eMY3ivdNzwE
Ode to Joy – Flash Mob Started by One Little Girl: To pay homage to the town they love and to celebrate their 130 anniversary Sabadell Bank in Spain delighted the townspeople with an incredible symphony flash mob. Watch as they play Ludwig van Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony and sang Ode to Joy, filling up the town with joy and beautiful music!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=87qT5BOl2XU
Ludwig van Beethoven, Symphony No. 9 in D Minor 4th Movement, “Ode To Joy” – Complete w/ Words and Translation – Long
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fVJbRiLI2WE
Georges Bizet – Carmen – Overture
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pmuFOuh3QHs
Frédéric Chopin, Minute Waltz, 1847
Full name: Waltz in D-flat major, Op. 64, No. 1, Valse du petit chien (French for Waltz of the little dog)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VSsSRvHamls
Franz Liszt, Hungarian Rhapsody No.2 , 1847
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IaeqbV5Mg8A
W. A. Mozart, Symphony No. 40, 1st Movement “Allegro”
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l45DAuXYSIs
W. A. Mozart, Rondo Alla Turca. Known formally as Piano Sonata No. 11 in A Major
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yomi0-WL5Pg
Johann Pachelbel (1653-1706)
Canon in D. Full name – Canon and Gigue for 3 violins and basso continuo
Boston Pops Orchestra, Conductor John Williams.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dcCnggBzLO4
Gioachino Rossini, The Barber of Seville (1816)
(link to be added)
Gioachino Rossini, LARGO AL FACTOTUM from The Barber of Seville
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TKDXr_fimQ8
Gioachino Rossini, The William Tell Overture (1829)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1MxT0PaPDhM
Bedřich Smetana: Dance of the Comedians (1866) NOVA filharmonija
dirigent: Simon Perčič, Novoletni capriccio, Slovenska filharmonija, Ljubljana, 23.12.2013
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QGqEFZLhYFg
The Blue Danube, Johann Strauss II (1825 – 1899)
André Rieu & his Johann Strauss Orchestra playing “The Beautiful Blue Danube” (An der schönen blauen Donau)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IDaJ7rFg66A
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, The Nutcracker Suite, 1892
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w1nzCDUNf-0
Antonio Vivaldi – Four Seasons. 1723
Budapest Strings, Bela Banfalvi, Conductor
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GRxofEmo3HA
Richard Wagner, Overture from The Flying Dutchman (German: Der fliegende Holländer) , (1843)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CbUjqtzOdKg
Richard Wagner, Pilgrim’s Chorus, from Tannhäuser
Tannhäuser and the Minstrel’s Contest at the Wartburg”) 1845
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r6OQCncAiC8
Richard Wagner, “Ride of the Valkyries”
Act 3 of Die Walküre, the second of the four operas by Richard Wagner that constitute Der Ring des Nibelungen (The Ring of the Nibelung)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GGU1P6lBW6Q
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Vocal/Ethnic/Cultural
Jan Peerce (Joshua Perelmuth) sings The Kol Nidre (Hebrew)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PpBXGIEUDKA
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French National Anthem – “La Marseillaise” (French, with English translation)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PIQSEq6tEVs
Learning Standards
Massachusetts Arts Curriculum Framework
http://www.doe.mass.edu/frameworks/arts/1099.pdf
The Arts Disciplines: Music
5.1 Perceive, describe, and respond to basic elements of music, including beat, tempo, rhythm, meter, pitch, melody, texture, dynamics, harmony, and form
5.2 Listen to and describe aural examples of music of various styles, genres, cultural and historical periods, identifying expressive qualities, instrumentation, and cultural and/or geographic context
Arts in world history: The Age of Revolutionary Change (C. 1700 TO 1914)
Europe: The Classical Style (1750–1825)
Developing forms of music: Sonata, concerto, symphony, instrumental chamber music. Sonata allegro form used extensively in large forms. Emergence of the fortepiano over other keyboard instruments.
Composers: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Joseph Haydn, C.P.E. Bach, J.C. Bach, Carl Maria von Weber, Christoph Willibald Gluck, Luigi Cherubini
The Romanticists (1800–1900) Developing forms of music: Great expansion of all major forms of music, especially the symphony and opera, as well as long solo works. Prominence of piano in chamber music. Descriptive program music. Emergence of
nationalism in composition, use of folk music.
Composers: Hector Berlioz, Franz Schubert, Felix Mendelssohn, Frédéric Chopin, Robert Schumann, Franz Liszt, Richard Wagner, Giuseppe Verdi, César Franck, Anton Bruckner, Johannes Brahms, Georges Bizet, Modest Mussorgsky, Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Antonin Dvorák, Edvard Grieg, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Giacomo Puccini, Gustav Mahler, Jan Sibelius, Bedrich Smetana.
Possible minds
In developing AIs (artificial intelligences) there’s no guarantee that they will think like we do. We need to ask:
What possible type of minds could people have?
What possible type of minds could AIs have?
We’ll illustrate possible minds on (at least) a 2D (two dimensional) chart.
Let’s start with interpreting 1D, 2D and 3D graphs; then we’ll show how to graph possible minds.
1. What is intelligence?
“The whole of cognitive or intellectual abilities required to obtain knowledge, and to use that knowledge in a good way to solve problems that have a well described goal and structure.”
Resing, W., & Drenth, P. (2007). Intelligence: knowing and measuring. Amsterdam: Publisher Nieuwezijds
also see What is intelligence and IQ?
2. What is the Wechsler IQ scale?
A simplistic test to represent intelligence with a single number.
| IQ Range (“deviation IQ”) | IQ Classification |
|---|---|
| 130 and above | Very Superior |
| 120–129 | Superior |
| 110–119 | High Average |
| 90–109 | Average |
| 80–89 | Low Average |
| 70–79 | Borderline |
| 69 and below | Extremely Low |
3. Is the Wechsler IQ scale 1D, 2D, or 3D?
A 1D (one dimensional) graph is used when there is only one variable.
Thermometer / Wechsler scale / Speedometer
4. In history class we sometimes plot political beliefs on a 1D scale. What is being plotted on this axis?
http://www.iagreetosee.com/faq/what-is-the-political-spectrum/
5. However, not all positions can be accurately shown on a 2D graph. We need at least 2 different dimensions. On this chart, what are axes being plotted?
6. Why is it better for some subjects to use 2D plotting instead of 1D?
7. How would we represent something that needs 3 different variables? With a 3D plot.
On this chart, what are the 3 different dimensions (axes) being plotted?
8. For minds we would need more than 1D to represent ideas. So this chart is insufficient.
We don’t really have just one intelligence dimension (“dumb-to-smart”) Rather, we have many types of intelligence such as the:
ability to think and reason logically, problem solving
ability to have empathy, understand the emotional state of other people)
ability to understand one’s own emotional state/sentience
The Universe of Minds, on a 2D graph
arxiv The Universe of Minds paperhttps://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1410/1410.0369.pdf
By Roman V. Yampolskiy
What is a mind? No universal definition exists… Higher order animals are believed to have one as well and maybe lower level animals and plants or even all life forms.
We believe that an artificially intelligent agent such as a robot or a program running on a computer will constitute a mind….
The set of human minds (about 7 billion of them currently available and about 100 billion ever existed) is very homogeneous both in terms of hardware (embodiment in a human body) and software (brain design and knowledge).
The small differences between human minds are trivial in the context of the full infinite spectrum of possible mind designs. Human minds represent only a small constant size subset of the great mind landscape. Same could be said about the sets of other earthly minds such as dog minds, or bug minds or male minds or in general the set of all animal minds…
Yudkowsky describes the map of mind design space as follows:
“In one corner, a tiny little circle contains all humans; within a larger tiny circle containing all biological life; and all the rest of the huge map is the space of minds-in-general. The entire map floats in a still vaster space, the space of optimization processes. Natural selection creates complex functional machinery without mindfulness; evolution lies inside the space of optimization processes but outside the circle of minds”
Figure 1 illustrates one possible mapping inspired by this description.
Yudkowsky describes the map of mind design space as follows:
“In one corner, a tiny little circle contains all humans; within a larger tiny circle containing all biological life; and all the rest of the huge map is the space of minds-in-general. The entire map floats in a still vaster space, the space of optimization processes”
(Yudkowsky 2008, 311).
Ivan Havel writes:
All conceivable cases of intelligence (of people, machines, whatever) are represented by points in a certain abstract multidimensional “super space” that I will call the intelligence space (shortly IS).
Imagine that a specific coordinate axis in IS is assigned to any conceivable particular ability, whether human, machine, shared, or unknown (all axes having one common origin). If the ability is measurable the assigned axis is endowed with a corresponding scale. Hypothetically, we can also assign scalar axes to abilities, for which only relations like “weaker-stronger,” “better-worse,” “less-more” etc. are meaningful; finally, abilities that may be only present or absent may be assigned with “axes” of two (logical) values (yes-no).
Let us assume that all coordinate axes are oriented in such a way that greater distance from the common origin always corresponds to larger extent, higher grade, or at least to the presence of the corresponding ability. … (Havel 2013, 13)
What do we see here?
___
Human minds – what we humans have, from a day old baby, to a child in 3rd grade, to an adult businesswoman, to the greatest geniuses the world has ever seen, like Albert Einstein and Isaac Newton. We’re all represented in the pink circle, in the image above. The left side of the circle are the least smart people, the right side represent the smartest people. The vertical axis might represent sapience, sentience, or some other aspect of intelligence.
Transhuman minds – This larger salmon-colored region represents the possible minds of humans who have chosen to expand their brains. In theory, humans could use genetic engineering, or cybernetics, or both, to expand our intellectual powers.
Transhumanism is “the intellectual and cultural movement that affirms the possibility and desirability of fundamentally improving the human condition through applied reason, especially by using technology to eliminate aging and greatly enhance human intellectual, physical, and psychological capacities” – Nick Bostrum, 1999.
Posthuman minds – If humans continue to push their biology and minds past the transhuman state, the result would be a being that no longer looks or thinks like a human being at all.
Freepy AIs are any type of artificial intelligence that human beings might be able to make; although they may produce results we can understand, we can’t understand the way that they think. They are not only smarter than us, they think differently than we do.
Bipping AI’s are a kind of artificial intelligence so advanced that humans couldn’t even possibly design them. They might be designed by other AIs, or by transhumans, or posthumans. They are amazingly intelligent, but utterly nonhuman. It might not even be possible to have a conversation with them, since their view of reality and their way of thinking about the world is so different from our own.
Gloopy AI’s are a kind of artificial intelligence so advanced that humans couldn’t even possibly design them, but not necessarily smarter than us. They would have a capacity to think, but perhaps at a lesser organized level. It might not even be possible to have a conversation with them, since their view of reality and their way of thinking about the world is so different from our own.
http://www.thenanoage.com/transhumanism-posthumanism.htm
Articles
A taxonomy of minds
Presentation: Is a singularity near? London Futurists Meetup on 20 Oct 2012
The Landscape of Possible Intelligences
The Space of Mind Designs and the Human Mental Model
Stephen M. Omohundro, “The Basic AI Drives”
All computation and physical action requires the physical resources of space, time, matter, and free energy. Almost any goal can be better accomplished by having more of these resources. In maximizing their expected utilities, systems will therefore feel a pressure to acquire more of these resources and to use them as efficiently as possible. Resources can be obtained in positive ways such as exploration, discovery, and trade. Or through negative means such as theft, murder, coercion, and fraud.
Unfortunately the pressure to acquire resources does not take account of the negative externalities imposed on others. Without explicit goals to the contrary, AIs are likely to behave like human sociopaths in their pursuit of resources. Human societies have created legal systems which enforce property rights and human rights. These structures channel the acquisition drive into positive directions but must be continually monitored for continued efficacy.
Non-human intelligences here on Earth
See consciousness in Human and non-Human Animals.
Video: Octopus tries to escape tank at Seattle Aquarium
Andreas Schou writes:
What in god’s name was this octopus trying to do? Maybe that’s the wrong question. There’s no question that octopi are smart — they can puzzle their way through surprisingly complex tasks — but they’re also not a lot like humans.
There’s only a limited extent that we can empathize with animals — and there’s a good chance that we’ll get it wrong. (consider, for example, “What is it like to be a bat?” By Thomas Nagel)
Octopi, though. Octopi are particularly difficult, and I don’t know if “volition” is really the right model to describe what this animal is trying to do.
Most of an octopus’ neurons are in its arms. The rest are in a donut-shaped brain that surrounds its digestive tract. Vision and hearing are handled centrally, but proprioception, smell, touch, and taste are mostly delegated to the nerve cords in the arms.
Which means that, subjectively, an octopus is probably something like an unruly parliament of snakes ruled by a dog.
If you’ve ever gotten a chance to interact with an octopus in person, you’ll find that it really doesn’t have much control over the details of what its tentacles do. Run your finger over the sensory surface, and its suckers will cup your fingers and the end will curl around it. Only afterward — when the octopus actually looks at what you’re doing — does the octopus seem to get a grip on what its tentacle is gripping.
This octopus is crawling out of its tank. But it probably doesn’t have a great idea about where the tips of its tentacles are, and — because it can’t see what its arms are doing — probably doesn’t yet know that it’s trying to make a break for freedom.
What is consciousness?
What is consciousness?
CSTA K-12 Computer Science Standards
CD.L2-07 Describe what distinguishes humans from machines, focusing on human intelligence versus machine intelligence and ways we can communicate.
CD.L2-08 Describe ways in which computers use models of intelligent behavior (e.g., robot motion, speech and language understanding, and computer vision).
CD.L3A-01 Describe the unique features of computers embedded in mobile devices and vehicles (e.g., cell phones, automobiles, airplanes).
CD.L3A-10 Describe the major applications of artificial intelligence and robotics.
Common Core ELA. WHST.6-8.1 Write arguments focused on discipline-specific content.
Entropy
This isn’t a webpage or lesson plan, at this point.
Right now it is just my online notes on entropy
Main ideas
two types of entropy
Rod Vance, on Physics.Stackexchange.com, writes:
There are two definitions of entropy, which physicists believe to be the same (modulo the dimensional Boltzman scaling constant) and a postulate of their sameness has so far yielded agreement between what is theoretically foretold and what is experimentally observed. There are theoretical grounds, namely most of the subject of statistical mechanics, for our believing them to be the same, but ultimately their sameness is an experimental observation
- (Boltzmann / Shannon): Given a thermodynamic system with a known macrostate, the entropy is the size of the document, in bits, you would need to write down to specify the system’s full quantum state. Otherwise put, it is proportional to the logarithm of the number of full quantum states that could prevail and be consistent with the observed macrostate. Yet another version: it is the (negative) conditional Shannon entropy (information content) of the maximum likelihood probability distribution of the system’s microstate conditioned on the knowledge of the prevailing macrostate;
- (Clausius / Carnot): Let a quantity δQδQ of heat be input to a system at temperature TT. Then the system’s entropy change is δQTδQT. This definition requires background, not the least what we mean by temperature; the well-definedness of entropy (i.e. that it is a function of state alone so that changes are independent of path between endpoint states) follows from the definition of temperature, which is made meaningful by the following steps in reasoning: (see my answer here for details). (1) Carnot’s theorem shows that all reversible heat engines working between the same two hot and cold reservoirs must work at the same efficiency, for an assertion otherwise leads to a contradiction of the postulate that heat cannot flow spontaneously from the cold to the hot reservoir. (2) Given this universality of reversible engines, we have a way to compare reservoirs: we take a “standard reservoir” and call its temperature unity, by definition. If we have a hotter reservoir, such that a reversible heat engine operating between the two yields TT units if work for every 1 unit of heat it dumps to the standard reservoir, then we call its temperature TT. If we have a colder reservoir and do the same (using the standard as the hot reservoir) and find that the engine yields TT units of work for every 1 dumped, we call its temperature T−1T−1. It follows from these definitions alone that the quantity δQTδQT is an exact differential because ∫badQT∫abdQT between positions aa and bb in phase space must be independent of path (otherwise one can violate the second law). So we have this new function of state “entropy” definied to increase by the exact differential dS=δQ/TdS=δQ/T when the a system reversibly absorbs heat δQδQ.
As stated at the outset, it is an experimental observation that these two definitions are the same; we do need a dimensional scaling constant to apply to t
http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/131170/what-is-entropy-really
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textbooks
apps
? Phet
microstates
External links
Entropy Sites — A Guide. Frank L. Lambert, Professor Emeritus
Entropy (order and disorder) (Wikipedia)
What Is Entropy? By Johannes Koelman
What is entropy? Thermodynamics of chemical equilibrium
Learning Standards
2016 Massachusetts Science and Technology/Engineering Curriculum Framework
High School Chemistry
PS3.A and 3.B Definition and conservation of energy and energy transfer
HS-PS3-4b. Provide evidence from informational text or available data to illustrate that the transfer of energy during a chemical reaction in a closed system involves changes in energy dispersal (enthalpy change) and heat content (entropy change) while assuming the overall energy in the system is conserved.
Mass Science Curriculum 2006
6. States of Matter, Kinetic Molecular Theory, and Thermochemistry
Central Concepts: Gas particles move independently of each other and are far apart. The behavior of gas particles can be modeled by the kinetic molecular theory. In liquids and solids, unlike gases, particles are close to each other. The driving forces of chemical reactions are energy and entropy. The reorganization of atoms in chemical reactions results in the release or absorption of heat energy.
6. States of Matter, Kinetic Molecular Theory, and Thermochemistry
6.5 Recognize that there is a natural tendency for systems to move in a direction of disorder or randomness (entropy).
SAT Subject Test in Chemistry
Thermochemistry: Including conservation of energy, calorimetry and specific heats, enthalpy (heat) changes associated with phase changes and chemical reactions, heating and cooling curves, entropy.
AP Chemistry
5.E: Chemical or physical processes are driven by a decrease in enthalpy or an increase in entropy, or both.
5.A.1: Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of atoms and molecules.
5.E: One of the most powerful applications of thermodynamic principles is the ability to determine whether a process corresponding to a physical or chemical change will lie toward the reactant or product side when the process reaches a steady equilibrium state. The standard change in Gibbs free energy, ΔG° = ΔH° – TΔS°, is used to make this determination. If ΔG° < 0, then products are favored at equilibrium, and the forward process is considered to be “thermodynamically favored.” Conversely, if ΔG° > 0, then reactants are favored at equilibrium, and the reverse process is considered to be “thermodynamically favored.” Both the enthalpy change (ΔH°) and the entropy change (ΔS°) are closely related to the structure and nature of the components of the system; for this reason, it is often possible to make qualitative determinations concerning the sign (and magnitude) of ΔG° without explicit calculation…. Importantly, in biochemical systems, some reactions that oppose the thermodynamically favored direction are driven by coupled reactions. Thus, a cell can use energy to create order (a direction that is not thermodynamically favored) via coupling with thermodynamically favored reactions….
5.E.1: Entropy is a measure of the dispersal of matter and energy.
5.E.1: a. Entropy may be understood in qualitative terms rather than formal statistical terms. Although this is not the most rigorous approach to entropy, the use of qualitative reasoning emphasizes that the goal is for students to be able to make predictions about the direction of entropy change, ΔS°, for many typical chemical and physical processes.
b. Entropy increases when matter is dispersed. The phase change from solid to liquid, or from liquid to gas, results in a dispersal of matter in the sense that the individual particles become more free to move, and generally occupy a larger volume. Another way in which entropy increases in this context is when the number of individual particles increases when a chemical reaction precedes whose stoichiometry results in a larger number of product species than reacting species. Also, for a gas, the entropy increases when there is an increase in volume (at constant temperature), and the gas molecules are able to move within a larger space.
c. Entropy increases when energy is dispersed. From KMT, we know that the distribution of kinetic energy among the particles of a gas broadens as the temperature increases. This is an increase in the dispersal of energy, as the total kinetic energy of the system becomes spread more broadly among all of the gas molecules. Thus, as temperature increases, the entropy increases.
5.E.2: a. For the purposes of thermodynamic analysis in this course, the enthalpy and the internal energy will not be distinguished.
b. The phrase “thermodynamically favored” means that products are favored at equilibrium (K > 1).
c. Historically, the term “spontaneous” has been used to describe processes for which ΔG° < 0. The phrase “thermodynamically favored” is used here to avoid misunderstanding and confusion that can occur because of the common connotation of the term “spontaneous,” which students may believe means “immediately” or “without cause.”
d. For many processes, students will be able to determine, either quantitatively or qualitatively, the signs of both ΔH° and ΔS° for a physical or chemical process. In those cases where ΔH° < 0 and ΔS° > 0, there is no need to calculate ΔG° in order to determine that the process is thermodynamically favored.
e. As noted below in 5.E.5, the fact that a process is thermodynamically favored does not mean that it will proceed at a measurable rate.
f. Any process in which both ΔH° > 0 and ΔS° < 0 are not thermodynamically favored, (ΔG° > 0) and the process must favor reactants at equilibrium (K < 1). Because the signs of ΔS° and ΔH° reverse when a chemical or physical process is reversed, this must be the case.
http://www.n-union.k12.oh.us/Downloads/AP%20Chem%20Curriculum%20Map.docx
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