Why teachers are skeptical about standardized tests
Why are many teachers skeptical about standardized tests? Why do many parents and teachers wants us to reduce our reliance on mandatory high stakes testing, like the Massachusetts MCAS exam, New York Regents exam, Texas STAAR, etc.? Why not just continue to insist on them?
In response to questions like these, Jeff Bigler writes
Often, that kind of sentiment comes from districts where students perform well on the tests. The problem with the tests is that they end up increasing the very achievement gap that they’re purported to reduce. Let me start with an example:
This is a story about three AP teachers. Granted, AP is not the same as MCAS, but it is also a high-stakes (at least for college-bound students) standardized test.
The first teacher is from a wealthy district. That teacher’s students all earned scores of 4 & 5.
The second teacher is from a middle middle class district. One-third of the second teacher’s students earned passing scores (3 or higher). None of that teacher’s students received a 5 (over a three-year period).
The third teacher is from an economically disadvantaged district. Only about 1% of that teacher’s students earned passing scores.
If you’re like most people, you would conclude that the first teacher is the best of the three, and the third is the worst, and that the best course of action is to fire the third teacher and incentivize the first teacher to teach in the third school.
However, all three of those teachers are the same person: me. Moreover, I taught in the wealthy district (Belmont) first, the middle middle class district second (Waltham), and the economically depressed district third (Lynn).
If anything, because of having more experience, I am a better teacher in Lynn than I was in either Belmont or Waltham. Those students in Lynn are getting the benefits of a teacher from a wealthy district whose students successfully earned high scores—those same benefits that are supposed to magically transform them into high-achieving scholars instantaneously.
What happened? Nothing. The students in Belmont were academically superior because their families made sure to educate them from the time they were babies. It’s like compound interest—students who have more academic capital invested from an earlier date get more returns. I could have stood in front of the Belmont kids picking my nose for 180 days and they would have done just as well, either on their own or because their parents would have hired tutors.
The kids from Lynn may have been well cared for in daycare, but for most of them, education didn’t really start until kindergarten. Both of their parents worked. (And in many cases, their parents spoke no English and never went to high school.) Many of my students have to figure out everything for themselves with no help other than from their teachers, and often while caring for younger siblings and sometimes even for their parents.
Now back to MCAS. In the 1990s, when Massachusetts created the standards that MCAS would be based on, they looked at the average developmental level of students across the state, and made that the minimum.
This means fully half of the children (the ones who were below average) were now being required to perform at a level beyond their developmental level. Of course, the averages are statewide; more of the children in poorer communities are being required to work beyond their developmental level than in wealthier communities.
When students are required to “learn” something before they are developmentally ready (because it’s on MCAS, and schools are punished based on MCAS scores), all their teachers can do is teach them procedures that generate the right answers. So the children dutifully learn those procedures.
They get the right answers, but those procedures can’t really be used as building blocks, and the students forget them shortly after learning them. So everything needs to be reviewed every year, and students are not learning in a way that they retain long-term.
This problem compounds itself every year. By the time they get to my physics class in 11th and 12th grade, many of my students can’t do basic Algebra 1 problems even though they had to pass Algebra 2 in order to take my class.
Children from economically depressed areas are also much more likely to form strong attachments to their teachers. The ones who live in abusive homes often develop a high level of empathy – it’s a coping mechanism that helps them protect themselves by sensing when it’s time to hide.
Those children have a heightened sense of their teachers’ stress about the test, and they worry that if they fail, they will be the cause of the one stable adult in their life getting fired.
Small wonder that those kids are so anxious that they throw up on the tests or take dangerous levels of ADHD medications—in their minds they are performing heroic actions to save their teachers. I cling to the vain hope that one day we will have a commissioner of education who understands child development and is trauma-informed. But I’m not going to hold my breath.
Related articles
Here’s a great example: Sara Holbrook, a poet, found that even she couldn’t even answer questions about her own work on a Texas state standardized exam because the questions are so poorly conceived. Valerie Strauss 1/7/2017, The Washington Post,
Poet : I can’t answer questions on Texas standardized tests about my own poems
I Can’t Answer These Texas Standardized Test Questions About My Own Poems
Standardized Testing Misses The Mark When It Comes To Student’s Cognitive Competency. The truth is, learning, insight, intellectual development are not quantifiable. By George Popham, Bay State Learning Center
Standardized Testing Misses The Mark When It Comes To Student’s Cognitive Competency
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Helium cycle
On Earth, the production of new helium is result of radioactive decay. Helium is found in large amounts in minerals of uranium and thorium. About 3,000 metric tons of helium are generated per year throughout the lithosphere.
Earth’s crust [He] =8 parts per billion
Seawater [He] = 4 parts per trillion.
Earth may gain He atoms from outer space, from cosmic rays.
Most He in Earth’s atmosphere escapes into space by several processes.
Near Earth’s surface, the average KE of He atoms is not enough for them to escape Earth’s gravitational field.
In the exosphere, He atoms have a greater KE, so some do escape. Much 3He leaves Earth in this way. Some 4He leaves in this way.
Some He undergoes photoionization by the polar wind. This then escapes along open lines of the Earth’s magnetic field.
Some He goes into space due to direct interaction of the solar wind with the upper atmosphere.
This occurs during the short periods of lower magnetic-field intensity while the Earth’s magnetic field is reversing.
talkorigins.org Helium gas discussion
Thanks for visiting my website. We have resources for teachers of Astronomy, Biology, Chemistry, Earth Science, Physics, Diversity and Inclusion in STEM, and connections with reading, books, TV, and film. At this next link are some great resources at Teachers Pay Teachers, including free downloads – KaiserScience TpT resources
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Learning Standards
Next Generation Science Standards
HS-LS2-4. Use mathematical representations to support claims for the cycling of matter and flow of energy among organisms in an ecosystem.
A Framework for K-12 Science Education Practices, Crosscutting Concepts, and Core Ideas (2012)
LS2.B: Cycles of Matter and Energy Transfer in Ecosystems
College Board Standards for College Success: Science
Standard ES.4 – Cycles of Matter and Energy: Matter on Earth is finite and moves through various cycles that are driven by the transformation of energy
LS.4.1 Matter Cycling – Students understand that matter is continuously recycled within the biological system and between the biological (biotic) and physical (abiotic) components of an ecosystem.
ESH-PE.4.2.2 Construct a graphical representation of the global carbon cycle (or the cycle of some other element or molecule), and use this representation to predict the effects of some environmental change (e.g., evolution of life, tectonic change, human activity) on carbon cycling (or the cycling of some other element or molecule).
Enduring Understanding 3A – Biogeochemical cycles are representations of the transport, transformation and storage of elements on a local, regional or global scale.
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Hydrogen cycle
Like carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus, there is also a cycle of hydrogen here on Earth. Hydrogen atoms move between biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) sources.
Hydrogen (H) is the most abundant element in the universe.
On Earth, common H-containing inorganic molecules include water (H2O), hydrogen gas (H2), methane (CH4), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and ammonia (NH3).
Organic compounds contain H atoms (as well as C.)
The chemistry of the Hydrogen cycle is highly relevant to the development of life on Earth and mostly likely elsewhere in space.
Hydrogen fuels rockets, but what about power for daily life? We’re getting closer. Phys.Org
Image from, Development and testing of new materials for high temperature PEM water electrolysis, Antonio Luis Tomas-Garcia
Where does our H2 come from? (sources)
biological processes in the oceans
biological (microbial) processes in soils
photochemical production in the troposphere via CH2O also written as H−CHO, formaldehyde.
Where does the H2 go? (sinks)
soil uptake
photochemical destruction in the troposphere by OH radicals
Free H2 can then be consumed by other microbes, oxidized photochemically in the atmosphere, or lost to space.
Cycling: H2 molecules usually exist within the atmosphere for 4 to 7 years before they get taken up in a soil sink.
Hydrogen production and leakage
As we develop hydrogen based industries, in what ways will we be producing, distributing, and using hydrogen? In what ways will hydrogen leak out into the atmosphere?
In the left column we see H2 production.
In the middle column we take into account the fact that once H2 gas is made, it needs to be distributed by trucks, ships, cargo trains, etc.
In the third column we see H2 being used by end-use customers.
Notice that in every step some H2 gas leaks out. Leaks are unintended, and unavoidable. We can minimize them but they will never be zero.
image from, Emission scenarios for a global hydrogen economy
Possible effect on ozone layer
“Increased atmospheric emissions of hydrogen will therefore inevitably lead to increased levels of water vapour in the stratosphere which will in turn lead to increased stratospheric cooling. This cooling may change the distribution of polar stratospheric clouds which play an important role in the formation of ozone holes and hence may delay the recovery of the ozone layer.”
A mitigating factor is that “The potential environmental risks from the hydrogen economy were found to be small in comparison with the environmental benefits. ” …. “the few available studies all point to the impact of large potential hydrogen leakages on the stratospheric ozone layer as being small”
– Hydrogen for Heating: Atmospheric Impacts – A literature review
Possible effect on global warming
Hydrogen gas indirectly acts as a greenhouse gas because it interferes with the global chemical reactions which control the methane levels and the formation of ozone.
Methane and ozone are the second and third most important greenhouse gases after carbon dioxide.
There is still much uncertainty about how much H2 gas would affect global warming, although the effect is currently considered to be very small.
– Hydrogen for Heating: Atmospheric Impacts – A literature review,
Possible effect on air quality
H2 is relatively inert. It offers almost no chemical reactivity with urban pollutants such as NOx, O3, SO2, CO, VOCs and suspended particulate matter. Thus it has no direct influence on urban air quality.
However, because of its reaction with hydroxyl radicals: OH + H2 → H2O + H it plays a weak role in the long-range transport of photochemical ozone. This may affect ozone levels in the lower atmosphere, although the effect is currently estimated to be very small.
Caution in relying on Hydrogen power
Using hydrogen as a source of power for vehicles certainly has its drawbacks—among them the cost and the inefficient use of energy—but researchers are now warning against hydrogen for another reason, The Guardian reports: scarcity and a subsequent dependence on fossil fuels….
“Hydrogen-based fuels can be a great clean energy carrier, yet their costs and associated risks are also great,” said Falko Ueckerdt, at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK) in Germany, who led the research.
“If we cling to combustion technologies and hope to feed them with hydrogen-based fuels, and these turn out to be too costly and scarce, then we will end up burning further oil and gas,” he said. “We should therefore prioritise those precious hydrogen-based fuels for applications for which they are indispensable: long-distance aviation, feedstocks in chemical production and steel production.”
The research, published in the journal Nature Climate Change, calculated that producing and burning hydrogen-based fuels in home gas boilers required six to 14 times more electricity than heat pumps providing the same warmth. This is because energy is wasted in creating the hydrogen, then the e-fuel, then in burning it. For cars, using e-fuels requires five times more electricity than is needed than for battery-powered cars.
text above from Researchers Warn Against Becoming Too Dependent On Hydrogen To Power Cars Elizabeth Blackstock, May 2021, Jalopnik
Using hydrogen fuel risks locking in reliance on fossil fuels, researchers warn Damian Carrington, 5/6/2021, The Guardian (UK)
Potential and risks of hydrogen-based e-fuels in climate change mitigation Falko Ueckerdt et al., Nature Climate Change volume 11, pages384–393(2021)
Hydrogen Production and Distribution Alternative Fuels Data Center, US Dept. of Energy,
Some critics of Hydrogen power
The government’s embrace of ‘clean hydrogen’ helps no one but the fossil fuel industry, Richard Denniss, The Guardian , 5/2/2021
Thanks for visiting my website. We have resources for teachers of Astronomy, Biology, Chemistry, Earth Science, Physics, Diversity and Inclusion in STEM, and connections with reading, books, TV, and film. At this next link are some great resources at Teachers Pay Teachers, including free downloads – KaiserScience TpT resources
External articles
Atmospheric researchers present new findingson the natural hydrogen cycle. CalTech
Assessing Leaks in a Global Hydrogen Infrastructure: Can it Perturb the Natural Hydrogen Cycle?
Leaked hydrogen fuel could have small negative effects on atmosphere
Hydrogen fuel could widen ozone hole
Global Environmental Impacts of the Hydrogen Economy
Hydrogen Effects on Climate, Stratospheric Ozone, and Air Pollution
Impact of a possible future global hydrogen economy on Arctic stratospheric ozone loss, with graphic
What Are The Pros And Cons Of Using Hydrogen To Generate Electricity?
The Hydrogen Hoax , The New Atlantis, by Robert Zubrin
Thanks for reading. While you’re here see our other articles on astronomy, biology, chemistry, Earth science, mathematics, physics, the scientific method, and making science connections through books, TV and movies.
References
Bas van Ruijven et al., Emission scenarios for a global hydrogen economy and the consequences for global air pollution, Global Environmental Change, Volume 21, Issue 3, 2011, Pages 983-994,
Hydrogen for Heating: Atmospheric Impacts – A literature review, BEIS Research Paper Number 2018: no. 21, Dept. for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy, UK
Learning Standards
Next Generation Science Standards
HS-LS2-4. Use mathematical representations to support claims for the cycling of matter and flow of energy among organisms in an ecosystem.
A Framework for K-12 Science Education Practices, Crosscutting Concepts, and Core Ideas (2012)
LS2.B: Cycles of Matter and Energy Transfer in Ecosystems
College Board Standards for College Success: Science
Standard ES.4 – Cycles of Matter and Energy: Matter on Earth is finite and moves through various cycles that are driven by the transformation of energy
LS.4.1 Matter Cycling – Students understand that matter is continuously recycled within the biological system and between the biological (biotic) and physical (abiotic) components of an ecosystem.
ESH-PE.4.2.2 Construct a graphical representation of the global carbon cycle (or the cycle of some other element or molecule), and use this representation to predict the effects of some environmental change (e.g., evolution of life, tectonic change, human activity) on carbon cycling (or the cycling of some other element or molecule).
Enduring Understanding 3A – Biogeochemical cycles are representations of the transport, transformation and storage of elements on a local, regional or global scale.
Birds
Definition of birds
Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates
They are characterized by the presence of feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweight skeleton.
Birds live worldwide; range in size from the 5 cm (2 in) bee hummingbird to the 2.75 m (9 ft) ostrich. There are about ten thousand living species.
Evolution of birds
Almost all dinosaurs went extinct about 65 million years ago (at the end of the Cretaceous Period), after living on Earth for about 165 million years.
Almost all branches of the dinosaur family tree died out, except for the branch with small feathered dinosaurs. That branch proliferated and developed into the birds that we know today.
Zina Deretsky, National Science Foundation. Air sac system of birds and of Majungasaurus.
This infographic is one way to show the relationship between various forms of dinosaurs. It illustrates that today’s birds are the last remaining branch of the dinosaur family tree.
Image by Shawn Gould and Jen Christiansen, from How Dinosaurs Grew So Large—And So Small, John R. Horner, Kevin Padian and Armand de RicqlèS
Scientific American 293, 56 – 63 (2005)
Groups of birds
Raptors, also known as birds of prey, are birds that primarily hunt and feed on vertebrates, and that are large relative to the hunter.
Raptors have keen eyesight for detecting food at a distance or during flight, strong feet equipped with talons for grasping or killing prey, and powerful, curved beaks for tearing flesh.
The term raptor is derived from the Latin word rapio, meaning to seize or take by force.
In addition to hunting live prey, many birds, such as fish eagles, vultures and condors, eat carrion.
Condors are under vultures, in the order of Cathartiformes.
Notice that raptors, like reptiles, are not a true clade.
“There’s No Such Thing As Reptiles Any More – And Here’s Why”
Phylogeny of core landbirds modified from Mindell et al. (2018). The shaded box encompasses the raptorial grade (see text), within which we propose that all orders are considered raptors. Raptors as a group is paraphyletic and mostly share the raptorial lifestyle passed down from their single common ancestor.
Such grouping assumes then that the raptorial lifestyle was lost twice independently with the ancestors of both the Coraciimorphae and Passeriformes/ Psittaciformes clades.
Commentary: Defining Raptors and Birds of Prey
Thanks for reading. While you’re here see our other articles on astronomy, biology, chemistry, Earth science, mathematics, physics, the scientific method, and making science connections through books, TV and movies.
Thanks for visiting my website. We have resources for teachers of Astronomy, Biology, Chemistry, Earth Science, Physics, Diversity and Inclusion in STEM, and connections with reading, books, TV, and film. At this next link are some great resources at Teachers Pay Teachers, including free downloads – KaiserScience TpT resources
Learning Standards
Benchmarks for Science Literacy, American Association for the Advancement of Science
Students should begin to extend their attention from external anatomy to internal structures and functions. Patterns of development may be brought in to further illustrate similarities and differences among organisms. Also, they should move from their invented classification systems to those used in modern biology… A classification system is a framework created by scientists for describing the vast diversity of organisms, indicating the degree of relatedness between organisms, and framing research questions.
Evolution and diversity: Origin of life, evidence of evolution, patterns of evolution, natural selection, speciation, classification and diversity of organisms.
Teaching About Evolution and the Nature of Science, National Academy Press (1998)
Biological classifications are based on how organisms are related. Organisms are classified into a hierarchy of groups and subgroups based on similarities which reflect their evolutionary relationships. Species is the most fundamental unit of classification.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics
People normally think of the three laws of thermodynamics. But there is one idea that they all depend on, so basic that it often gets overlooked: the zeroth law.
This idea works like the transitive rule of algebra:
If A = B and B = C then A = C
If the temp of object A = temp of object B,
and the temp of object B = temp of object C,
then the temp of object A = temp of object C
Therefore all three systems would be in thermal equilibrium.
Let’s watch three different materials fulfill this law, by coming into thermal equilibrium.
Animation by Charles Xie
Thermal equilibrium (in this example) is reached when the temp of all pieces = 13.4 degrees C.
http://weelookang.blogspot.sg/2012/09/the-zeroth-law-of-thermodynamics.html
Also see https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/thermo0.html
Another way to view this:
“When body A is placed in thermal contact with body B, there will be a flow of thermal energy between the two bodies. Thermal energy will flow from the body at a higher temperature, to the one at a lower temperature, until thermal equilibrium between the two bodies is reached.”
– Loo Kang Lawrence
Thanks for visiting my website. We have resources for teachers of Astronomy, Biology, Chemistry, Earth Science, Physics, Diversity and Inclusion in STEM, and connections with reading, books, TV, and film. At this next link are some great resources at Teachers Pay Teachers, including free downloads – KaiserScience TpT resources
Measuring lengths in the metric system
In science and engineering we often have to make measurements of distances and lengths.
Here we’re going to get a feel what various distances would actually look like in real life.
Kilometers
Kilometers is abbreviated as km.
A km is 1,000 meters.
A km is 0.62 miles, or, you can say that one mile is 1.6 km.
How can we visualize this?
A kilometer is two and a half laps around a standard 400m track.
The 400-metre dash, is a sprinting event in track and field competitions.
This image from athleticsworld.net.
We can visualize a cube, 1 km wide, by 1 km long, by 1 km high, in the middle of New York City.
Here you can see this size compared to city streets, the Empire State Building, the Burj Dubai building, and central park.
Image from 7.3 Billion People, One Building, Tim Urban, waitbutwhy.com
meters
The meter is abbreviated as m.
What kind of things are about a meter long?
image from pxfuel.com
South Georgia College Tigers, Wikipedia
centimeter
Centi means 1/100th 0.01 10-2
The centimeter is abbreviated as cm.
It is one one-hundredth of a meter.
What kind of things are about a cm in length?
1 cm is the approximate width of average fingernail
3.5 cm is the width of film commonly used in motion pictures and still photography.
from How to load a 35mm Film SLR, ThePiece32
millimeters
milli means 1/1000th 0.001 10-3
This is 1/1000th of a meter.
What kind of things are commonly measured in millimeters?
A millimeter is about the thickness of a plastic id card (or credit card).
from mymetalbusinesscard.com
When we have 10 millimeters, it can be called a centimeter.
micrometers
A micrometer is abbreviated as μm
micro means 1/1,000,000th 0.000001 10-6
Just one one-millionth of a meter.
What kind of things are commonly measured in micrometers?
about as long as a Red Blood Cell
15 µm – width of silk fiber.
A single silk fiber could be roughly 100 times thinner than the smallest thread that you see here!
(You’d need 1000 fibers wound tightly together to create a thread of these sizes.)
17 µm – minimum width of a strand of human hair
Pollen, mold, plant spores: 7 – 70 μm
70 to 180 µm – thickness of paper
nanometers
Abbreviated as nm.
nano means 1/1,000,000,000 th 0.000000001 10-9
What kind of things are about a nanometer long?
Human fingernails grow about 1 nanometer per second.
Individual atoms are about 0.1 to 0.2 nanometers in diameter.
Here we see many atoms, each one of which is less than 1 nm wide.
image from dynamicscience.com.au
A single water molecule is about 1.5 nanometers.
A strand of human DNA is 2.5 nanometers in diameter.
A single hemoglobin molecule is 5 nanometers across.
A single bacterium is about 1,000 nanometers long.
Thanks for visiting my website. We have resources for teachers of Astronomy, Biology, Chemistry, Earth Science, Physics, Diversity and Inclusion in STEM, and connections with reading, books, TV, and film. At this next link are some great resources at Teachers Pay Teachers, including free downloads – KaiserScience TpT resources
Computer apps
Powers of Ten (JAVA) For Windows and Macs. Check to see if this runs on Android phones or Chromebooks. Secret Worlds: The Universe Within: Molecular Expressions The size and scale of the universe htwins.net – scale of the universe
Smartphone and tablet apps
Cosmic Zoom app by Tokata. For Android and iPad Google Play Store link About cozmic zoom Powers of Minus Ten, by Dynamoid Apps. iPad app thepartnershipineducation.com Powers-of-minus-ten Link for the Apple app store
Thanks for reading. While you’re here see our other articles on astronomy, biology, chemistry, Earth science, mathematics, physics, the scientific method, and making science connections through books, TV and movies.
Learning Standards
Massachusetts Science and Technology/Engineering Curriculum Framework
Science and Engineering Practices: 5. Using Mathematics and Computational Thinking: Apply ratios, rates, percentages, and unit conversions in the context of complicated measurement problems involving quantities with derived or compound units (such as mg/mL, kg/m 3, acre-feet, etc.).
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Students need to develop an understanding of metric units and their relationships, as well as fluency in applying the metric system to real-world situations. Because some non-metric units of measure are common in particular contexts, students need to develop familiarity with multiple systems of measure, including metric and customary systems and their relationships.
National Science Teachers Association
The efficiency and effectiveness of the metric system has long been evident to scientists, engineers, and educators. Because the metric system is used in all industrial nations except the United States, it is the position of the National Science Teachers Association that the International System of Units (SI) and its language be incorporated as an integral part of the education of children at all levels of their schooling.
Measuring mass in the metric system
In science and engineering we often have to make measurements of mass. Now, I understand that a lot of American students have affinity for the traditional English system of measurements.
But we can’t make much progress in any field of science or engineering without first becoming conversant with the metric system. It is used worldwide.
How do we measure mass? To learn practical, hands-on skills, see our lesson here: Measuring mass with a triple beam balance
But in this lesson we’re going to get a feel what various masses would actually look like in real life.
Kilograms
A kilogram is 1,000 grams. It is abbreviated as kg.
Can we convert between kilograms and pounds…. not quite [TBA]
But if all measurements are done here on Earth then 1 kg of mass has a weight of about 2.2 pounds.
Here’s a 1 kg steak dinner
image from TripAdvisor, Outback Steakhouse, Las Vegas Blvd
How can we visualize this? About the mass of a liter bottle of water or soda.
About the mass of good size hardcover book. About the mass of a quart of Gatorade.
Or about the mass of an adult Black-Footed Ferret.
Grams
A metric unit of mass is the gram abbreviated as g.
What kind of things are about a gram in mass?
Centigrams
Centi means 1/100th 0.01 10-2
A smaller metric unit of mass is the centigram abbreviated as cg.
It is one one-hundredth of a gram.
What kind of things are about a cg in mass? Many medications come in 1 cg size, although they more often are measured as 100 mg. Here are magnesium supplement pills.
When a pencil tip breaks, a bigger piece could be about 1 cg.
(We could name something that has a mass of gram and divide it in ten pieces)
milligrams
milli means 1/1000th 0.001 10-3
This is 1/1000th of a gram.
What kind of things are commonly measured in milligrams?
Many doses of medications are measured in milligrams:
Amitriptyline (Elavil) treats chronic pain and depression.
Atorvastatin (Lipitor) treats high cholesterol.
Amlodipine (Norvasc) treats high blood pressure and angina.
Here is crushed powder of a medication shown next to a penny for comparison.
Penny, 1 mg, 10 mg, 25 mg
Micrograms
Yet even smaller is the microgram abbreviated as μg
micro means 1/1,000,000th 0.000001 10-6
Just one one-millionth of a gram
What kind of things are commonly measured in micrograms?
Grains of sand are around 30 to 50 micrograms.
Mass of a grain of sand
Nanograms
Abbreviated as ng.
nano means 1/1,000,000,000 th 0.000000001 10-9
Imagine cutting a raisin into a billion pieces. Each of those tiny pieces has a mass of about one ng.
What kind of things are about a nanogram in mass?
A human cell or a grain of birch pollen. Note that in this picture, each dot that you can see is likely dozens of pollen grains stuck together.
Each individual grain by itself is so small that you’d need a microscope to clearly see it.
Nanograms are very small compared to anything we see in our daily lives, but they are large compared to a single atom
Chemistry math & mass problem
How many atoms of iron (Fe) are in 1 ng (1.0 x 10-9 g) of iron?
This problem from xaktly – Chemistry – The Mole.
We start by finding the molar mass of iron from the periodic table. It’s 55.85 g/mol.
We use the molar mass to convert to moles.
Then multiply by 6.022 x 1023 atoms per mole to get the number of atoms.
1 ng of iron atoms is about 1 x 10 ^ 13 atoms!
That’s 10,000,000,000,000 atoms.
Videos
Powers of Ten and the Relative Size of Things in the Universe
Thanks for visiting my website. We have resources for teachers of Astronomy, Biology, Chemistry, Earth Science, Physics, Diversity and Inclusion in STEM, and connections with reading, books, TV, and film. At this next link are some great resources at Teachers Pay Teachers, including free downloads – KaiserScience TpT resources
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Computer apps
Powers of Ten (JAVA) For Windows and Macs. Check to see if this runs on Android phones or Chromebooks.
Secret Worlds: The Universe Within: Molecular Expressions
The size and scale of the universe
htwins.net – scale of the universe
Smartphone and tablet apps
Cosmic Zoom app by Tokata. For Android and iPad
Google Play Store link
About cozmic zoom
Powers of Minus Ten, by Dynamoid Apps. iPad app
thepartnershipineducation.com Powers-of-minus-ten
Link for the Apple app store
Learning Standards
Massachusetts Science and Technology/Engineering Curriculum Framework
Science and Engineering Practices: 5. Using Mathematics and Computational Thinking: Apply ratios, rates, percentages, and unit conversions in the context of complicated measurement problems involving quantities with derived or compound units (such as mg/mL, kg/m 3, acre-feet, etc.).
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Students need to develop an understanding of metric units and their relationships, as well as fluency in applying the metric system to real-world situations. Because some non-metric units of measure are common in particular contexts, students need to develop familiarity with multiple systems of measure, including metric and customary systems and their relationships.
National Science Teachers Association
The efficiency and effectiveness of the metric system has long been evident to scientists, engineers, and educators. Because the metric system is used in all industrial nations except the United States, it is the position of the National Science Teachers Association that the International System of Units (SI) and its language be incorporated as an integral part of the education of children at all levels of their schooling.
Busting myths: No Virginia, some sugars aren’t better than others
Myth “Some sugars are better for our bodies than others.”
Myth “Natural, raw or unrefined sugars are better.”
Myth “It is better to use honey, maple syrup, agave syrup, or coconut sugar.”
Myth “Corn syrup is worse for us than other sugars”
Myth “Natural sugar is better than processed sugar.”
Reality: None of those claims are really true. In reality our metabolism breaks down all sugars the same way.
Agave syrup, maple syrup, coconut sugar – none of these are sugar alternatives – they are just sources of sugar.
Sucrose, a common sugar, is a disaccharide. That means it is a two-part molecule, made of glucose and fructose.
And get this – sucrose is not absorbed by the human GI tract. Instead, our intestines secrete an enzyme, sucrase-isomaltase.
This breaks down any sucrose into glucose and fructose, and it is those smaller sugars which are absorbed. So our body doesn’t care which kind of sugar we eat; the result is the same.
Image from sucraid.com/about-csid
Myth “Natural sugar is better than processed sugar.”
All sugars are processed. The so-called “processed” white sugar that people are afraid of is just sugar from a natural source, sugar cane or beets. Brown sugar? The same as white sugar, except that the molasses hasn’t been removed. Not healthier whatsoever.
“Raw honey” may be unprocessed, but it isn’t any healthier. It is just sugar mixed with water, pollen and a few other organic molecules. You’re not going to be helped by the microscopic amount of nutrients in raw honey unless you ate pounds of it a day.
Myth “High fructose corn syrup is worse for you than other sugar.”
Reality? Nope. It’s literally the same thing.
image from Examine.com, difference between HFCS and sugar
More details on this bit here – What is the difference between high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) and sugar?
Myth “Sugars higher on the glycemic index are worse for you.”
Nope. Such claims come from flawed studies, see below for details.
So, are we saying that sugar is good for you? No, we aren’t saying that either. Mainstream science already knows the answer, and people just refuse to hear it: For most people, having some sugar in our diet has always been fine. The problem comes from diets which have huge amounts of sugar, and not enough of other foods that actually are good for us.
While no one, single diet is best for everyone, science points to the same direction: Eat a balanced diet with whole grains, beans, legumes, vegetables and fruit. Have less meat, and certainly less processed meat. Eat far less fried foods. Watch your total calorie intake. Keep daily sugar and fat intake lower. There you go.
What’s wrong with those glucose versus sucrose studies?
In those studies, researchers did the following: They fed huge amounts of only one type of sugar molecule to one group of rats, and huge amounts of a different type of sugar molecule to another group of rats. Then they looked at how the health of the rats were affected over time.
Problem 1: These studies don’t resemble real world eating. Humans don’t spend entire days eating nothing but fructose or nothing but sucrose. The way that our metabolism would handle that is different from how it would handle normal eating, in which sugar is only a small part of the diet. In real life, even in poor diets, sugar is still only a fraction of the total: there are also proteins, complex carbohydrates, fats, oils, vitamins, minerals, etc.
Problem 2: Some studies attempted to see how consuming different sugars affects one’s resulting blood sugar level. Sugar molecules which create a higher result are said to be higher on a glycemic index; sugar molecules which create a lower result are said to be lower on the glycemic index. Yet these are unnatural diets in which rats ate only pure sugars. When we study the results of normal diets, with actual food, there’s almost no difference between sugars. A meal’s impact on resulting blood sugar levels depends on the amount of sugar and how fast it gets absorbed, not on the type of sugar molecule.
Problem 3: Rats do not metabolize sugars in the same ways that humans do. Hence, any inaccuracies due to the above problems become magnified, making the results non applicable to humans.
Result: The data from those studies are essentially useless.
Honors biology details
Glucose enters the glycolysis metabolic pathway at the top.
Here it is phosphorylated by Hexokinase.
Fructose enters glycolysis pathway two steps later, where it meets phosphofructokinase.
Thus, eating pure fructose allows the energy to be metabolized a bit faster than eating pure glucose.
But people don’t consume huge chunks of pure sugars. When eating anything resembling real life meals, the difference is very little.
Studies on High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS)
High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is also known as glucose-fructose, isoglucose and glucose-fructose syrup. There is no scientific evidence that HFCS itself causes obesity or metabolic syndrome, but rather overconsumption and excessive caloric intake of any sweetened food or beverage may contribute to these diseases.
Epidemiological research has shown that the increase in metabolic disorders, such as obesity and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, is linked to increased consumption of sugars and calories in general.
A 2012 review found that fructose did not appear to cause weight gain when it replaced other carbohydrates in diets with similar calories.
A 2014 systematic review found little evidence for an association between HFCS consumption and liver diseases, enzyme levels or fat content.
The American Heart Association recommended that people limit added sugar (such as maltose, sucrose, high fructose corn syrup, molasses or cane sugar) in their diets.
High fructose corn syrup article
Is Sugar Really Toxic? Sifting through the Evidence
Scientific American Staff and Ferris Jabr, Scientific American, July 15, 2013
https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/brainwaves/is-sugar-really-toxic-sifting-through-the-evidence/
By consuming so much sugar we are not just demonstrating weak willpower and indulging our sweet tooth – we are in fact poisoning ourselves according to a group of doctors, nutritionists and biologists, one of the most prominent members of which is Robert Lustig of the University of California, San Francisco…
A few journalists, such as Gary Taubes and Mark Bittman, have reached similar conclusions. Sugar, they argue, poses far greater dangers than cavities and love handles; it is a toxin that harms our organs and disrupts the body’s usual hormonal cycles.
Excessive consumption of sugar, they say, is one of the primary causes of the obesity epidemic and metabolic disorders like diabetes, as well as a culprit of cardiovascular disease. More than one-third of American adults and approximately 12.5 million children and adolescents in the U.S. are obese. In 1980, 5.6 million Americans were diagnosed with diabetes; in 2011 more than 20 million Americans had the illness.
…. Because fructose metabolism seems to kick off a chain reaction of potentially harmful chemical changes inside the body, Lustig, Taubes and others have singled out fructose as the rotten apple of the sugar family. When they talk about sugar as a toxin, they mean fructose specifically.
In the last few years, however, prominent biochemists and nutrition experts have challenged the idea that fructose is a threat to our health and have argued that replacing fructose with glucose or other sugars would solve nothing.
First, as fructose expert John White points out, fructose consumption has been declining for more than a decade, but rates of obesity continued to rise during the same period. Of course, coinciding trends alone do not definitively demonstrate anything.
A more compelling criticism is that concern about fructose is based primarily on studies in which rodents and people consumed huge amounts of the molecule – up to 300 grams of fructose each day, which is nearly equivalent to the total sugar in eight cans of Coke – or a diet in which the vast majority of sugars were pure fructose. The reality is that most people consume far less fructose than used in such studies and rarely eat fructose without glucose.
…. Not only do many worrying fructose studies use unrealistic doses of the sugar unaccompanied by glucose, it also turns out that the rodents researchers have studied metabolize fructose in a very different way than people do—far more different than originally anticipated.
… Even if Lustig is wrong to call fructose poisonous and saddle it with all the blame for obesity and diabetes, his most fundamental directive is sound: eat less sugar. Why? Because super sugary, energy-dense foods with little nutritional value are one of the main ways we consume more calories than we need, albeit not the only way.
Glycemic index and obesity
Janette C Brand-Miller, Susanna HA Holt, Dorota B Pawlak, Joanna McMillan
Glycemic index and obesity, The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
Volume 76, Issue 1, July 2002, Pages 281S–285S
https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/76.1.281S
Although weight loss can be achieved by any means of energy restriction, current dietary guidelines have not prevented weight regain or population-level increases in obesity and overweight. Many high-carbohydrate, low-fat diets may be counterproductive to weight control because they markedly increase postprandial hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia.
Many high-carbohydrate foods common to Western diets produce a high glycemic response [high-glycemic-index (GI) foods], promoting postprandial carbohydrate oxidation at the expense of fat oxidation, thus altering fuel partitioning in a way that may be conducive to body fat gain.
In contrast, diets based on low-fat foods that produce a low glycemic response (low-GI foods) may enhance weight control because they promote satiety, minimize postprandial insulin secretion, and maintain insulin sensitivity.
This hypothesis is supported by several intervention studies in humans in which energy-restricted diets based on low-GI foods produced greater weight loss than did equivalent diets based on high-GI foods.
Long-term studies in animal models have also shown that diets based on high-GI starches promote weight gain, visceral adiposity, and higher concentrations of lipogenic enzymes than do isoenergetic, macronutrient controlled, low-GI-starch diets.
In a study of healthy pregnant women, a high-GI diet was associated with greater weight at term than was a nutrient-balanced, low-GI diet.
In a study of diet and complications of type 1 diabetes, the GI of the overall diet was an independent predictor of waist circumference in men.
These findings provide the scientific rationale to justify randomized, controlled, multicenter intervention studies comparing the effects of conventional and low-GI diets on weight control.
Straight talk about high-fructose corn syrup: what it is and what it ain’t,
Straight talk about high-fructose corn syrup: what it is and what it ain’t,
John S. White, The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
Volume 88, Issue 6, December 2008, Pages 1716S–1721S, https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2008.25825B
High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is a fructose-glucose liquid sweetener alternative to sucrose (common table sugar) first introduced to the food and beverage industry in the 1970s. It is not meaningfully different in composition or metabolism from other fructose-glucose sweeteners like sucrose, honey, and fruit juice concentrates.
HFCS was widely embraced by food formulators, and its use grew between the mid-1970s and mid-1990s, principally as a replacement for sucrose. This was primarily because of its sweetness comparable with that of sucrose, improved stability and functionality, and ease of use.
Although HFCS use today is nearly equivalent to sucrose use in the United States, we live in a decidedly sucrose-sweetened world: >90% of the nutritive sweetener used worldwide is sucrose. Here I review the history, composition, availability, and characteristics of HFCS in a factual manner to clarify common misunderstandings that have been a source of confusion to health professionals and the general public alike.
In particular, I evaluate the strength of the popular hypothesis that HFCS is uniquely responsible for obesity. Although examples of pure fructose causing metabolic upset at high concentrations abound, especially when fed as the sole carbohydrate source, there is no evidence that the common fructose-glucose sweeteners do the same.
Thus, studies using extreme carbohydrate diets may be useful for probing biochemical pathways, but they have no relevance to the human diet or to current consumption. I conclude that the HFCS-obesity hypothesis is supported neither in the United States nor worldwide.
Thanks for reading. While you’re here see our other articles on astronomy, biology, chemistry, Earth science, mathematics, physics, the scientific method, and making science connections through books, TV and movies.
Plant identification apps
Learning objectives
SWBAT (“students will be able to,” content, procedures, skills)
Describe characteristics of seeds and plants, based on observation.
Identify characteristics that are the same or different across various seeds and plants.
Use a dichotomous key
Vocabulary objectives
Tier II: Classify, Differentiate, Analyze
Tier III: Dichotomous key, bryophytes, vascular, seed, confiers, angiosperms, gymnosperms, monocotsm dicots
Connections
Life is classified in kingdoms; that plants are one of the many kingdoms; that this kingdom itself is broken down into many smaller groups. Students should be able to recognize what a plant looks like, and have the prior knowledge that plants need sunlight, space and water to survive.
Why identify plants?
Students should be able to explain several ways that plants are useful.
Answers might include:
Large scale food production
Local, community and home food production
Managing national and state parks
Necessary for a healthy ecosystem (biodiversity)
Necessary for human psychological health (contrast blighted areas with plant, tree and flower-rich yards.)
Biology, Miller and Levine, Chap 4, Pearson.
Use of plants in managing wildlife
From Noble News and Views:
“As natural resource managers, we must understand what we manage, and plant identification is a key component of that understanding.”
“whether you are a cow-calf producer, sheep and goat producer, wildlife manager, or manager of some combination of these enterprises, you should be paying close attention to what your management decisions are doing to the resources that support your enterprises: plants. After all, plants are what produce these products.”
“The ability to know, or identify, plants allows us to assess many important rangeland or pasture variables that are critical to proper management: range condition, proper stocking rates, forage production, wildlife habitat quality, and rangeland trend, either upward or downward.”
Noble.org – Plant-identification-is-it-worth-the-effort
Why use dichotomous keys?
Students often learn how to identify plants with dichotomous keys. This is a math and logic skill, valuable for classifying all forms of life (and any kind of classification system.)
A dichotomy is a partition of a whole (or a set) into two parts. This is an essential part of mathematical logic
The use of a dichotomous key for identification is an algorithm.
Apps
iNaturalist – https://www.inaturalist.org/
“Naturalist helps you identify the plants and animals around you. Get connected with a community of over 400,000 scientists and naturalists who can help you learn more about nature!”
PictureThis – https://www.picturethisai.com/
Helps more than 30,000,000 users identify, learn, and enjoy all kinds of plants: flowers, trees, succulents, cacti and more! Capable of identifying 10,000+ plant species.
Plantix – https://plantix.net/en/
Are you a farmer or hobby gardener and grow vegetables, fruit or arable crops? Are your plants sick; did you have losses in the last harvest? We are Plantix and offer you fast and free help. Whether you grow tomatoes, bananas or rice – Plantix is your interactive plant doctor. “
PlantNet Plant Identification https://plantnet.org/en/
This is a research and a citizen science project. Works on more than 20,000 wild plants, and ornamental and cultivated plants
Google Lens https://lens.google.com/
An image recognition technology developed by Google. Brings up relevant info about objects that it identifies using visual analysis based on a neural network.
External resources
Classification and dichotomous key worksheet
Using Dichotomous Keys Middle School Scientists Curriculum
BioNinja Dichotomous Keys
Cultural and religious importance of plants
Many different cultures and religions have specific uses for particular plants. Certain plants may be used in various holidays or ritual observances.
One of the goals of Social Studies is to expose students to the diversity of ethnic, religious, and cultural observances in our world.
The College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social Studies State Standards notes that students should be able to describe how religions are embedded in culture and cannot only be isolated to the “private” sphere, and identify which religious communities are represented or obscured in public discourse.
Thus, science and social studies teachers can work together to create multi-disciplinary units.
Ethnobotany
The study of a region’s plants and their practical uses through the traditional knowledge of a local culture and people. An ethnobotanist studies local customs involving uses of local flora for many aspects of life, such as plants as medicines, foods, intoxicants and clothing.
Ethnobotany, US Forest Service
Plants in the Jewish tradition
The Sabbath year (shmita; Hebrew: שמיטה, literally “release”), also called the Sabbatical year or Shevi’it (שביעית, literally “seventh”.) This is the seventh year of the seven-year agricultural cycle mandated by the Torah for agriculture by Jewish people living in Israel. During this year the land is left to lie fallow, allowing the soil to regenerate nutrients. With certain exceptions, most agricultural activity is not allowed during this year.
Genesis – Shmitah year covenant, Neohasid.org
What is shmita? My Jewish Learning
Lulav and Etrog, the four species Wikipedia
Trees in Jewish Thought
The Seven Species of plants in the land of Israel.
Plants in the Christian tradition
Trees and plants in the Christian tradition
Trees and religion: Christianity
Plants in the Islamic tradition
Islamic garden
Environmental protection – Islamic shariah
Plants in Buddhist tradition
Ecological significance of plants in Buddhism
Plants in Native American traditions
Native American ethnobotany
Native American Plant Use
Plants in Hinduism
Trees and religion: Hinduism
Plants of religious significance
Thanks for reading. While you’re here see our other articles on astronomy, biology, chemistry, Earth science, mathematics, physics, the scientific method, and making science connections through books, TV and movies.
Learning Standards
Common Core ELA CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RST.9-10.3
Follow precisely a complex multistep procedure when carrying out experiments, taking measurements, or performing technical tasks, attending to special cases or exceptions defined in the text.
Next Generation Science Standards
2-LS4-1. Make observations of plants and animals to compare the diversity of life in different habitats.
2-PS1-1. Plan and conduct an investigation to describe and classify different kinds of materials by their observable properties.
MS-LS4-2. Apply scientific ideas to construct an explanation for the anatomical similarities and differences among modern organisms and between modern and fossil organisms to infer evolutionary relationships.
National Science Education Standards, The National Academies Press, 1996
Biological classifications are based on how organisms are related. Organisms are classified into a hierarchy of groups and subgroups based on similarities which reflect their evolutionary relationships. Species is the most fundamental unit of classification.
[Use of dichotomous key is a math skill] – Use Math in all aspects of scientific inquiry: Mathematics is essential to asking and answering questions about the natural world. Mathematics can be used to ask questions; to gather, organize, and present data; and to structure convincing explanations.
Benchmarks for Science Literacy
American Association for the Advancement of Science
Students should begin to extend their attention from external anatomy to internal structures and functions. Patterns of development may be brought in to further illustrate similarities and differences among organisms. Also, they should move from their invented classification systems to those used in modern biology…
A classification system is a framework created by scientists for describing the vast diversity of organisms, indicating the degree of relatedness between organisms, and framing research questions.
SAT Biology Subject Area Test
Evolution and diversity: Origin of life, evidence of evolution, patterns of evolution, natural selection, speciation, classification and diversity of organisms.
Teaching About Evolution and the Nature of Science (National Academy Press)
Biological classifications are based on how organisms are related. Organisms are classified into a hierarchy of groups and subgroups based on similarities which reflect their evolutionary relationships. Species is the most fundamental unit of classification.
Massachusetts Digital Literacy and Computer Science (DLCS) Curriculum Framework
Use of Dichotomous key for identification is an algorithm:
Algorithms [3-5.CT.b]
1. Define an algorithm as a sequence of instructions that can be processed by a computer.
2. Recognize that different solutions exist for the same problem (or sub-problem).
3. Use logical reasoning to predict outcomes of an algorithm.
National Curriculum Standards for Social Studies
3. People, Places, and Environments
The study of people, places, and environments enables us to understand the relationship between human populations and the physical world. Students learn where people and places are located and why they are there. They examine the influence of physical systems, such as climate, weather and seasons, and natural resources, such as land and water, on human populations….
During their studies, learners develop an understanding of spatial perspectives, and examine changes in the relationship between peoples, places and environments….
Immunosenescence (aging of immune system)
Introduction
(In this GIF we see Y-shaped antibodies recognizing and attaching to a pathogen, targeting it for destruction.)
Ed Yong writes, there’s a joke about immunology, which Jessica Metcalf of Princeton recently told me: An immunologist and a cardiologist are kidnapped. The kidnappers threaten to shoot one of them, but promise to spare whoever has made the greater contribution to humanity. The cardiologist says, “Well, I’ve identified drugs that have saved the lives of millions of people.” Impressed, the kidnappers turn to the immunologist. “What have you done?” they ask. The immunologist says, “The thing is, the immune system is very complicated …” And the cardiologist says, “Just shoot me now.”
Immunology Is Where Intuition Goes to Die, The Atlantic
________________________________
Immunosenescence refers to the gradual deterioration of the immune system brought on by natural age advancement.
The adaptive immune system is affected more than the innate immune system. [1]
It deteriorates
* our capacity to respond to infections
* the development of long-term immune memory, especially by vaccination. [2]
This age-associated immune deficiency is ubiquitous. It is found in both long- and short-living species as a function of their age relative to life expectancy rather than chronological time. [3]
It is considered a major contributory factor to the increased frequency of morbidity and mortality among the elderly.
Immunosenescence is not random. It appears to repeat an evolutionary pattern. Most of the parameters affected by immunosenescence appear to be under genetic control. [4]
It is the result of increasing, lifelong exposures to a variety of antigens such as viruses and bacteria. [5]
{This introduction has been adapted from the Wikipedia article, Immunosenescence}
How it works
New medical techniques to fight against Immunosenescence
COVID-19 poses the greatest threat to older people, but vaccines often don’t work well in this group. Scientists hope drugs that rejuvenate the immune system will help.
The text below has been excerpted from How anti-ageing drugs could boost COVID vaccines in older people, Cassandra Willyard, Nature (news feature) 10/14/2020
Immunosenescence explains why older age groups are so hard-hit by COVID-19 [and why] vaccines, which incite the immune system to fight off invaders, often perform poorly in older people. The best strategy for quelling the pandemic might fail in exactly the group that needs it most.
[With aging] some types of immune cell become depleted: for example, older adults have fewer naive T cells that respond to new invaders, and fewer B cells, which produce antibodies that latch on to invading pathogens and target them for destruction.
[With aging] older people also tend to experience chronic, low-grade inflammation [inflammageing.] This constant buzz of internal activation makes the immune system less responsive to external insults.
With many COVID-19 vaccine candidates currently being tested… researchers say it’s not yet clear how they will fare in older adults.
… If COVID-19 vaccines perform less well in older adults, researchers might be able to find ways to tweak the shot itself to elicit a stronger response. Some influenza vaccines, for instance, include immune-boosting ingredients or higher doses of the viral antigen.
But some scientists say there is a better option. They are developing and testing drugs that could improve how older adults respond to vaccines and might also help them fight viruses more effectively in the first place. Rather than working with the limitations of the ageing immune system, they are planning to rejuvenate it.
… One promising class of anti-ageing drug acts on pathways involved in cell growth. These drugs inhibit a protein known as mTOR. In the laboratory, inhibiting mTOR lengthens lifespan in animals from fruit flies to mice.
….The type 2 diabetes drug metformin also dampens down mTOR’s activity, albeit indirectly. Some studies suggest that people who take metformin are less likely to be hospitalized or die if they contract COVID-19.
…diseases such as diabetes and obesity lead to some of the same immune deficits as occur in older age.
… many anti-ageing pathways seem to be linked, says James Kirkland, who studies cellular ageing and disease at the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota.
“That is, if you target one, you tend to affect all the rest,” he says. Many of the immune changes that come with ageing lead to the same result: inflammation. So researchers are looking at drugs that will calm this symptom.
… Another class of drug, called senolytics, helps to purge the body of cells that have stopped dividing but won’t die.
_____________________________
Thanks for visiting my website. We have resources for teachers of Astronomy, Biology, Chemistry, Earth Science, Physics, Diversity and Inclusion in STEM, and connections with reading, books, TV, and film. At this next link are some great resources at Teachers Pay Teachers, including free downloads – KaiserScience TpT resources
_________________________________
Learning Standards
Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS)
HS-LS1-2 Develop and use a model to illustrate the hierarchical organization of interacting systems that provide specific functions within multicellular organisms.
DCI – LS1.A: Structure and Function – Feedback mechanisms maintain a living system’s internal conditions within certain limits and mediate behaviors, allowing it to remain alive and functional even as external conditions change within some range.
Evidence statements: In the model, students describe the relationships between components, including:
* A system’s function and how that relates both to the system’s parts and to the overall function of the organism.
* Students use the model to illustrate how the interaction between systems provides specific functions in multicellular organisms
Massachusetts Comprehensive Health Curriculum Framework
Students will gain the knowledge and skills to select a diet that supports
health and reduces the risk of illness and future chronic diseases. PreK–12 Standard 4
8.1 Describe how the body fights germs and disease naturally and with medicines and
immunization
8.2 Identify the common symptoms of illness and recognize that being responsible for individual health means alerting caretakers to any symptoms of illness.
8.5 Identify ways individuals can reduce risk factors related to communicable and chronic diseases
8.6 Describe the importance of early detection in preventing the progression of disease.
8.7 Explain the need to follow prescribed health care procedures given by parents and health care providers.
8.8 Describe how to demonstrate safe care and concern toward ill and disabled persons in the family, school, and community.
8.13 Explain how the immune system functions to prevent and combat disease
Interdisciplinary Learning Objectives: Disease Prevention and Control
8.a. (Law & Policy. Connects with History & Social Science: Geography and Civics & Government) Analyze the influence of factors (such as social and economic) on the treatment and management of illness.
Benchmarks for Science Literacy, AAAS
The immune system functions to protect against microscopic organisms and foreign substances that enter from outside the body and against some cancer cells that arise within. 6C/H1*
Some allergic reactions are caused by the body’s immune responses to usually harmless environmental substances. Sometimes the immune system may attack some of the body’s own cells. 6E/H1
Some viral diseases, such as AIDS, destroy critical cells of the immune system, leaving the body unable to deal with multiple infection agents and cancerous cells. 6E/H4
Vaccines induce the body to build immunity to a disease without actually causing the disease itself. 6E/M7** (BSL)
Footnotes
1 Pangrazzi L, Weinberger B (2020). “T cells, aging and senescence”. Experimental Gerontology. 134: 110887. doi:10.1016/j.exger.2020.110887. PMID 32092501. S2CID 211237913.
2. Muszkat, M; E. Greenbaum; A. Ben-Yehuda; M. Oster; E. Yeu’l; S. Heimann; R. Levy; G. Friedman; Z. Zakay-Rones (2003). “Local and systemic immune response in nursing-home elderly following intranasal or intramuscular immunization with inactivated influenza vaccine”. Vaccine. 21(11–12): 1180–1186. doi:10.1016/S0264-410X(02)00481-4. PMID 12559796.
3. Ginaldi, L.; M.F. Loreto; M.P. Corsi; M. Modesti; M. de Martinis (2001). “Immunosenescence and infectious diseases”. Microbes and Infection. 3 (10): 851–857. doi:10.1016/S1286-4579(01)01443-5. PMID 11580980.
4. Franceschi, C.; S. Valensin; F. Fagnoni; C. Barbi; M. Bonafe (1999). “Biomarkers of immunosenescence within an evolutionary perspective: the challenge of heterogeneity and the role of antigenic load”. Experimental Gerontology. 34 (8): 911–921. doi:10.1016/S0531-5565(99)00068-6. PMID 10673145. S2CID 32614875.
5. Franceschi, C.; M. Bonafè; S. Valensin (2000). “Human immunosenescence: the prevailing of innate immunity, the failing of clonotypic immunity, and the filling of immunological space”. Vaccine. 18 (16): 1717–1720. doi:10.1016/S0264-410X(99)00513-7. PMID 10689155.
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